Vaishnavism in Ancient Tamilakam

Add links
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Part of a series on
Vaishnavism
Closeup of Vishnu, seated in the lotus position on a lotus. From depiction of the poet Jayadeva bowing to Vishnu, Gouache on paper Pahari, The very picture of devotion, bare-bodied, head bowed, legs crossed and hands folded, Jayadeva stands at left, with the implements of worship placed before the lotus-seat of Vishnu who sits there, blessing the poet.
Supreme deity
Vishnu / Krishna / Rama
Important deities
Dashavatara
Other forms
Consorts
Related
Holy scriptures
Puranas
Sampradayas
Others
Teachers—acharyas
Related traditions
Part of a series on
Hinduism
Origins
Traditions
Major traditions
Deities
Other major Devas / Devis
Vedic:
Post-Vedic:
Concepts
Worldview
Ontology
God
Mokṣa-related topics:
Mind
Ethics
Practices
Worship, sacrifice, and charity
Meditation
Philosophical schools
Other schools
Gurus, sants, philosophers
Modern
Texts
Divisions
Rigveda:
Yajurveda:
Samaveda:
Atharvaveda:
Society
Four varnas:
Varna-less:
Varna-related topics:
Other society-related topics:
Other topics
Hindu culture
Hinduism and other religions

Vaishnavism in Tamil Nadu finds its earliest literary mention in ancient Tamil Sangam literature from the 5th century BCE. Maha Vishnu or Perumal is considered to be the most mentioned god in Sangam Literature.[1] Some of the earliest known mentions of Perumal, and the Tamil devotional poems ascribed to him, are found in Paripāṭal – the Sangam era poetic anthology.[2][3] He is a popular Hindu deity, particularly among Tamils in Tamil Nadu and the Tamil diaspora, as well as in Vaishnava temples.[4] One of the richest and largest Hindu temples complexes is dedicated to Perumal in South India. [where? citation needed]

The richest temple in the world is dedicated to a form of Perumal known as the Padmanabhaswamy Perumal temple, in Thiruvananthapurum.[5] Several extant Hindu texts including the Vishnu Purana,[6] Brahma Purana,[7] Matsya Purana,[8] Varaha Purana,[8] Skanda Purana,[7] Padma Purana,[7] Vayu Purana and Bhagavata Purana mention the Padmanabhaswamy Temple.[7] In addition, the temple has several references in Sangam period literature.[9] Many historians and scholars are of the opinion that one of the names that the Temple had, "The Golden Temple", was in cognisance of the Temple being already unimaginably wealthy by that point (early Sangam period).[10][11][9] Many extant pieces of Sangam Tamil literature and poetry as well as later works of the 9th century of Tamil poet–such as saint Nammalwar refer to the temple and the city as having walls of pure gold.[12] Both the temple and the entire city are often eulogised as being made of gold, and the temple as heaven.[12][13] The temple is one of the 108 principal Divya Desams ("Holy Abodes") in Vaishnavism according to existing Tamil hymns from the fifth and eighth centuries C.E and is glorified in the Divya Prabandha.

The Biggest temple in India and the "Worlds largest functioning temple" is also dedicated to a Form of Maha Vishnu popularly known as the Srirangam Ranganathaswamy Perumal Temple.[14]: 456  This temple is considered First among the 108 principal Divya Desams ("Holy Abodes") in Vaishnavism according to existing Tamil hymns from the fifth and eighth centuries C.E and is glorified in the Divya Prabandha and sung by all the 12 Alvars. The temple at Srirangam is mentioned in Tamil literature of the Sangam era (6th century BCE to the 2nd century CE[15]), including the epic Silapadikaram (book 11, lines 35–40):[16]

ஆயிரம் விரித்தெழு தலையுடை அருந்திறற் பாயற் பள்ளிப் பலர்தொழு தேத்த விரிதிரைக் காவிரி வியன்பெருந் துருத்தித் திருவமர் மார்பன் கிடந்த வண்ணமும்

āyiram viritteḻu talaiyuṭai aruntiṟaṟ pāyaṟ paḷḷip palartoḻu tētta viritiraik kāviri viyaṉperu turuttit tiruvamar mārpaṉ kiṭanta vaṇṇamum

On a magnificent cot having a thousand heads spread out, worshipped and praised by many, in an islet surrounded by Kaveri with billowing waves, is the lying posture of the one who has Lakshmi sitting in his chest

Silapadikaram (book 11, lines 35–40)

The temple was initially constructed by the Chola ruler, Dharmavarma. The Kaveri river flood destroyed the temple vimanam, and later, the early Cholas King Killivalavan rebuilt the temple complex as is present today. Beyond ancient textual history, archaeological evidence such as inscriptions refer to this temple, but these stone inscriptions are from late 1st millennium CE.[17] The inscriptions in the temple belong to the Chola, Pandya, Hoysala and Vijayanagara dynasties who ruled over the region. These inscriptions range between the 9th and 16th centuries.[18]

Narayana in Vaikuntha as Para Vasudeva

During the period of invasion and plunder by the Alauddin Khilji's Muslim general Malik Kafur and his Delhi Sultanate forces in 1311, the Arabic texts of the period state that he raided a "golden temple" on river "Kanobari" (Kaveri), destroyed the temple and took the plunder with the golden icon of the deity to Delhi. According to Steven P. Hopkins, this is believed to be the Ranganathaswamy Temple.[19]

The most visited temple (where?) is also dedicated to Perumal which is Venkateshvara temple in Tirupati, Andhra Pradesh.[20]

Other significant institutions include Kanchipuram's Varadaraja Perumal temple, and Sri Vidhya Rajagopalaswamy Perumal Temple, Mannargudi.The temple is called Dakshina Dvaraka (Southern Dvaraka) along with Guruvayoor by Hindus.[21][22] The deity Perumal is identified with Mayon, literally meaning, "the dark-complexioned one", who is first referenced in the texts Purananuru and Pattupattu. Regarded to be the Tamil equivalent of Krishna, poetry from this period compares his dark skin to the ocean.[23] Originally a folk deity, he was syncretised with Krishna and Vishnu, gaining popularity in the Sri Vaishnava tradition.[24] His consort is Lakshmi, the goddess of fortune, beauty, and prosperity, appearing in even the earliest strata of Tamil poetry.[25]

Mayon is indicated to be the deity associated with the mullai tiṇai (pastoral landscape) in the Tolkappiyam.[26][27] He is regarded to be the only deity who enjoyed the status of Paramporul (achieving oneness with Paramatma) during the Sangam age. He is also known as Māyavan, Māmiyon, Netiyōn, and Māl in Sangam literature.[1]

Mentions of Vaishnavism in Sangam Literature[edit]

See also: Ramayana in Tamil literature

Mahalakshmi in Sangama Literature[edit]

Portrait of Mahalakshmi in Brihadisvara Temple.

Lakshmi is one of the principal goddesses in Hinduism. She is the goddess of wealth, fortune, power, beauty, fertility and prosperity,[28] and associated with Maya ("Illusion"). Lakshmi is venerated as the prosperity aspect of the Mother goddess.[29][30] Lakshmi is both the consort and the divine energy (shakti) of the Hindu god Vishnu, the Supreme Being of Vaishnavism; she is also the Supreme Goddess in the sect and assists Vishnu to create, protect, and transform the universe.[30][31][32] She is an especially prominent figure in Sri Vaishnavism, in which devotion to Lakshmi is deemed to be crucial to reach Vishnu.[33]

Mahalakshmi is often called as Thayar in Tamil which literarily translates to (Mother of the world).[34] Devi Lakshmi is mentioned in several places of the Sangam Literature, Mahalakshmi is often portrayed as the Wife of Maha Vishnu and stays at the chest of Vishnu.

Srivilliputhur Andal temple is dedicated to Lakshmi and Vishnu where Lakshmi as Andal is more prominent than Vishnu.

She is worshipped by women in ancient Tamilakam for the return of the warriors (their husbands) with soul in their body.[35][36] Maha Lakshmi has mentions in Sangam texts. Mahalakshmi was also considered as kotravai in her other form to marry Vishnu in the avatar of Shiva.

Purananuru mentions Sita that avathara of (Mahalakshmi) was abducted by the demon king Ravana and she throws away her jewels as she was sad at leaving the deity Rama. Malaipaṭukaṭām mentions the goddess of wealth and fortune, Lakshmi in lines 463–464 and the "Goddess who sits enthroned on the chest of Vishnu".[37] , Mullaippāṭṭu which mentions women praying to Maha Lakshmi for their husbands to live long and not to die in the war,[35] Paripāṭal mentions Maha Lakshmi seated on the chest of Vishnu,[38] Silapathikaram mentions Lakshmi several places. For example, She is the Devi mentioned as Thiru seated on the chest of Ranganatha sleeping in Srirangam,[39] She is in the form of Sita with Rama and Radha - The lover of Krishna, She is considered as the goddess of fortune, wealth and happiness and have huge temples for her, Maturaikkāñci mentions that the city gates and house walls had symbols and portraits of Mahalakshmi, the goddess of wealth and Maha Vishnu's wife.,[40] Manimekalai describes a function dedicated to Lord Indra where the tired and sleeping young boys and girls who earlier in the day had run around in their costumes of Hindu gods (Vishnu) and goddesses (Lakshmi);,[41] It also mentions (A character in the epic) called Aputra who reaches Madurai. He sits with his begging bowl inside Madurai's Temple dedicated to Maha Lakshmi, the goddess of fortune.[42] The worshippers of Lakshmi are kind and donate a large amount of food to the bowl of Aputra, which Aputra shares with the poor, the blind, the deaf and other needy people. The text also mentions Kanyakumari as being a Hindu bathing pilgrimage site dedicated to Maha Lakshmi, The Akanāṉūṟu describes Rama at Dhanushkodi, sitting under a Banyan tree, involved in secret discussions about the war between him and Ravana who kidnapped Sita, while the birds are singing.[43][42] Thirukural mentions Goddess Lakshmi in couplets 167, 408, 519, 565, 568, 616, and 617 hints, high existence of Sri Vaishnavism and Valluvar's beliefs on it.[44] There are many other mentions of Maha Lakshmi in Sangam literature.

Maha Vishnu in Sangam Literature[edit]

A reference to "Mukkol Pakavars" in Sangam literature indicates that only Vaishnava saints were holding Tridanda and were prominent during the period. Tirumal was glorified as "the supreme deity", whose divine lotus feet could burn all evil and grant moksha. During the post-Sangam period, his worship was further glorified by the poet-saints called the Alvars.[45][46] Perumal (Vishnu) was the only deity who enjoyed the status of Paramporul during the Sangam age. The reference to Mukkol Bhagavars in Sangam literature indicates that only Vaishnavaite saints holding Tridanda existed during the age and Perumal was glorified as the supreme deity, whose "divine lotus feet can burn all our evils and grant moksha" (maru piraparukkum maasil sevadi).[47]

Pillars and bas-reliefs of people and animals
Pillars and bas-reliefs based on Mahabharatha and Harivamsa
Krishna and many other figures
Krishna holding Goverdhana sculpture at Mahabalipuram dating 6th century AD

Tolkāppiyam[edit]

See also: Tolkāppiyam

Perumal is considered to be another name of Vishnu, and was traditionally the deity associated with the forests. Mayon is indicated to be the deity associated with the mullai tiṇai (pastoral landscape) in the Tolkappiyam.[26][27] Tolkappiyar Mentions Mayon first when he made reference to deities in the different land divisions.[48] which gives a hint that he might be a scholar who follows Vaishnavism.

Paripāṭal[edit]

See also: Paripāṭal

The Paripādal (Tamil: பரிபாடல், meaning the paripadal-metre anthology) is a classical Tamil poetic work and traditionally the fifth of the Eight Anthologies (Ettuthokai) in the Sangam literature.[49] According to Tolkappiyam, Paripadal is a kind of verse dealing only with love (akapporul) and does not fall under the general classification of verses. It has a minimum of 25 lines and a maximum of 400 lines. Tamil Sangam literature (200 BCE to 500 CE) mentions Mayon or the "dark one," as the supreme deity who creates, sustains, and destroys the universe and was worshipped in the mountains of Tamilakam. The Earliest verses of Paripadal describe the glory of Perumal in the most poetic of terms. Many Poems of the Paripadal consider Perumal as the Supreme god of Tamils.[47] Paripāṭal also mentions that Vishnu is only Shiva and Brahma he is everything and is the supreme god and represents himself as different gods.[47]

Sundarabahu Perumal Temple Mentioned in Paripadal.

Maturaikkāñci[edit]

See also: Maturaikkāñci

Maduraikanchi (Tamil: மதுரைக் காஞ்சி), [51] is an ancient Tamil poem in the Sangam literature. Lines 497 to 511 allude to gods and goddesses in temples like Thirumohoor Kalamegaperumal temple[52] and Koodal Azhagar temple[52] with iconographic items of Hinduism. Maha Vishnu is called the Ruler of the three worlds and the "Supreme Deity" and it identifies Rama and Krishna as his incarnations of Maha Vishnu.[52] He is alluded to with "God who protects the world" and also as Tirivikrama - The lord who measured the three worlds. A bathing festival with ritual dip in the waters to "cleanse their sins" is mentioned in the poem. Chanting of the Vedas is mentioned in lines 512–518,[40] The lines related to the Vedas, states Chelliah, alludes to the jivanmukta ideology found in Hinduism.[53] Maduraikanchi also details the Thiruvonam festival celebrated in the Koodal Azhagar temple, Madurai.[54]

Akanaṉūṟu[edit]

See also: Akanaṉūṟu
Srivilliputhur Andal temple is the official symbol of the Government of Tamil Nadu

Number of poems echo the Hindu puranic legends about Parashurama, Rama, Krishna and others in the Akanaṉūṟu .[55][56] According to Alf Hiltebeitel – an Indian Religions and Sanskrit Epics scholar, the Akanaṉūṟu has the earliest known mentions of some stories such as "Krishna stealing sarees of Gopis" which is found later in north Indian literature, making it probable that some of the ideas from Tamil Hindu scholars inspired the Sanskrit scholars in the north and the Bhagavata Purana, or vice versa.[57] However the text Harivamsa which is complex, containing layers that go back to the 1st or 2nd centuries BCE, Consists the parts of Krishna Playing with Gopis and stealing sarees.

The Akanāṉūṟu has a reference to the Ramayana in poem 70. The poem places a triumphant Rama at Dhanushkodi, sitting under a Banyan tree, involved in some secret discussions, when the birds are chirping away.[43] This seems to indicate that the story of the Ramayana was familiar in the Tamil lands before the Kamba Ramayanam of the 12th century.

Procession of the Tamil deity Perumal, with Vaishnavaite saints

Purananuru[edit]

The earliest reference to the story of the Ramayana is found in the Purananuru which is dated from 1st century BCE and 5th century CE.[58] Purananuru 378, attributed to the poet UnPodiPasunKudaiyar, written in praise of the Chola king IlanCetCenni. The poem makes the analogy of a poet receiving royal gifts and that worn by the relatives of the poet as being unworthy for their status, to the event in the Ramayana, where Sita drops her jewels when abducted by Ravana and these jewels being picked up red-faced monkeys who delightfully wore the ornaments (Hart and Heifetz, 1999, pp. 219–220).[59][60]

The Purananuru poems use words, phrases, and metaphors, including references to the Himalayas of "immeasurable heights", Vishnu, Shiva, the four Vedas, the Ramayana, rivers, and other aspects.[61][62][60]

Other Sangam works Which mention Vishnu[edit]

  • Kalittokai is notable for including allusions and references to pan-Indian love and moral legends found in Epics– and Puranas–genre Sanskrit texts. According to Zvelebil, some examples in the Kalittokai include Krishna an avathara of Maha Vishnu killing His uncle Kansa in poems 52 and 134, Duryodhana's evil plans to kill the Pandava brothers in poem 25, the battle of Murugan and Surapadma in poem 27, An event mentioned in the epic Ramayana, of Ravana lifting the Kailasa is described in the Poem 139 of Lines 33 to 37, Bhima in poem 52, the love story of Urvasi and Tilottama in poem 109, among others.[63]

Mullaippāṭṭu[edit]

Main article: Mullaippāṭṭu

Mullaippāṭṭu (Tamil: முல்லைப்பாட்டு, lit. "the forest or jungle song") is an ancient Tamil poem in the Sangam literature.[79] Authored by Napputanar, it is the shortest poem in the Ten Idylls (Pattuppāṭṭu) anthology, consisting of 103 lines in akaval meter. The poem is "one of the most beautiful of the Pattuppattu songs, states Zvelebil.[80]

The short poem mentions the Hindu god Vishnu through an elaborate simile.[81][82] Lines 46–47 of Mullaippattu mentions Brahmin yogis in ochre-colored clothes carrying three staves and called as "Mukkol Pakavars" and indicates that only Vaishnava saints were holding Tridanda and were prominent during the period and considered Maha Vishnu as the Supreme god.[83] The poem has about 500 words, predominantly Tamil. It has 13 Sanskrit loan words and 2 non-Tamil provincial words.[84]

Manimekalai[edit]

See also: Manimekalai
Thirvikrama Perumal Templewhich is mentioned in Agananuru, Purananuru, Natrinai, Kurunthogai and Divya Prabhandham.[85]

Manimekalai written as the sequel to the Silappatikaram by the Buddhist poet Chithalai Chathanar, narrates the tale of Manimekalai, the daughter of Kovalan and Madhavi, and her journey to become a Buddhist Bhikkuni.

Certain verses from the epic Show Maha Vishnu as The Father of Brahma and Gave Vedas to the Entire Universe and is Considered as the Paramatma - The Supreme Deity of the World.

Example from The Canto XIII of Manimekalai

Aputra then meets and accuses the Brahmins of twisting the meaning of the Veda verses taught by Brahma born from the navel of Maha Vishnu who holds a golden disc as his weapon. Aputra reminds the Brahmins that the greatest Vedic teachers such as Vasishtha and Agastya were born of low birth.[42]

This epic also makes several references to the Ramayana, such as a setu (bridge) being built by monkeys in canto 5, line 37 (however the location is Kanyakumari rather than Dhanushkodi). In another reference, in canto 17, lines 9 to 16, the epic talks about Rama being the incarnate of Trivikrama or Netiyon, and he building the setu with the help of monkeys who hurled huge rocks into the ocean to build the bridge. Further, canto 18, lines 19 to 26, refers to the illegitimate love of Indra for Ahalya the wife of Rishi Gautama(Pandian, 1931, p. 149)(Aiyangar, 1927, p. 28).[86][87][88] The epic again mentions Rama as Vishnu, from the story Ramayana, It states that Rama built a link (bridge) to Sri Lanka, but a curse of an ascetic dissolved the bridge link.[89]

Silappatikaram[edit]

The Silappatikaram (translated as The Tale of an anklet) written by a prince turned Jain monk Ilango Adigal, dated to the 2nd century AD or later. The epic narrates the tale of Kovalan, son of a wealthy merchant, his wife Kannagi, and his lover Madhavi, and has many references to the Ramayana story, Different avatars of Para Brahman and Temples of Maha Vishnu. It describes the fate of Poompuhar suffering the same agony as experienced by Ayodhya when Rama leaves for exile to the forest as instructed by his father (Dikshitar, 1939, p. 193). The Aycciyarkuravai section (canto 27), makes mention of the Lord who could measure the three worlds, going to the forest with his brother, waging a war against Lanka and destroying it with fire (Dikshitar, 1939, p. 237). This seems to imply on Rama being regarded as divinity, rather than a mere human. These references indicate that the author was well aware of the story of the Ramayana in the 2nd century AD.[90]

It also mentions Srirangam Ranganathaswamy temple which was visited and built by many kings and praised by saints.Silapadikaram (book 11, lines 35–40):.[citation needed] The temple was first built by the Chola ruler, Dharmavarma. The Kaveri river flood destroyed the temple, and later, the early Cholas King Killivalavan who found the vimana and the idol of Ranganathaswamy rebuilt the temple complex as is present today.

The Tamil epic has many references and allusions to the Sanskrit epics and puranic legends. For example, it describes the fate of Poompuhar suffering the same agony as experienced by Ayodhya when Rama leaves for exile to the forest as instructed by his father.[90] The Aycciyarkuravai section (canto 27), makes mention of the Lord who could measure the three worlds, going to the forest with his brother, waging a war against Lanka and destroying it with fire.[90]

Idols of Rama, Sita, Lakshmana and Hanuman

According to D. Dennis Hudson – a World Religions and Tamil literature scholar, the Cilappatikaram is the earliest and first complete Tamil reference to Pillai (Nila, Nappinnai, Radha), who is described in the epic as the cowherd lover of Krishna.[91] The epic includes abundant stories and allusions to Krishna and his stories, which are also found in ancient Sanskrit Puranas. In the canto where Kannaki is waiting for Kovalan to return after selling her anklet to a Madurai merchant, she is in a village with cowgirls.[91] These cowherd girls enact a dance, where one plays Mayavan (Krishna), another girl plays Tammunon (Balarama), while a third plays Pinnai (Radha). The dance begins with a song listing Krishna's heroic deeds and his fondness for Radha, then they dance where sage Narada plays music. Such scenes where cowgirls imitate Krishna's life story are also found in Sanskrit poems of Harivamsa and Vishnu Purana, both generally dated to be older than Cilappatikaram.[91] The Tamil epic calls portions of it as vāla caritai nāṭaṅkaḷ, which mirrors the phrase balacarita nataka – dramas about the story of the child Krishna" – in the more ancient Sanskrit kavyas.[91]

The oldest direct reference to Venkateswara Temple, Tirumala in Tamil literature is from the Silappatikaram text. The Silappatikaram states the beauty of Maha Vishnu in Venkateswara Temple, Tirumala and Maha Vishnus greatness. The author Ilango Adigal Mentions Venkateswara Temple, Tirumala in most Beautiful terms. Few verses from the Silappatikaram which mention Venkateswara Temple, Tirumala.

Silappatikaram, vēṉiṟ kātai:1-2

Silappatikaram, Kāṭukāṇ kātai: 41–51

Here, Neṭiyōṉ kuṉṟam means “Vishnu's mountain” and toṭiyōḷ pauvam means "Kumari goddess sea". Netiyon is another name dedicated to Maha Vishnu in Ancient Tamilakam.[95] ceṅkaṇ neṭiyōṉ means “Red-eyed Vishnu” and Vēṅkaṭam refers to Venkateswara Temple, Tirumala. Maha Vishnu is being referenced as the Red eyed lord even in the sacred book Vishnu Sahasranama which is featured in the Anushasana Parva of Mahabharatha.[96][97] Which shows that Ilango Adigal and Ancient Tamils were aware of the Vishnu Sahasranama which is much older than the Silappatikaram.[96]

Thirukural[edit]

See also: Thiruvalluvar and Thirukural
The Thirivikrama Perumal Temple, Sirkazhi is said to be mentioned by Valluvar in his 610th Thirukural

Thirukural is a classic Tamil language text consisting of 1,330 short couplets, or kurals, of seven words each. In the introductory chapters of the Kural, Valluvar cites Indra, the king of heaven, to exemplify the virtue of conquest over one's senses.[citation needed] According to Tamil Hindu scholars such as Parimelalakar, other concepts and teachings found in Valluvar's text and also found in Hindu texts include Vedas,[98] gods (Trimurti), sattva, guṇa, munis and sadhus (renouncers), rebirth, affirmation of a primordial God, among others.[citation needed] According to Purnalingam Pillai, who is known for his critique of Brahminism, a rational analysis of the Valluvar's work suggests that he was a Hindu, and not a Jain.[citation needed] Similarly, J. J. Glazov, a Tamil literature scholar and the translator of the Kural text into the Russian language, sees "Thiruvalluvar as a Hindu by faith", according to a review by Kamil Zvelebil.[99]

Valluvar's mentioning of God Maha Vishnu in couplets 610 and 1103 and Goddess Lakshmi in couplets 167, 408, 519, 565, 568, 616, and 617 hints at the Vaishnavite beliefs of Valluvar.[citation needed]

Example:-

குறள் 610: மடியிலா மன்னவன் எய்தும் அடியளந்தான் தாஅய தெல்லாம் ஒருங்கு.

Couplet Explanation: The king who never gives way to idleness will obtain entire possession of (the whole earth) passed over by Vishnu who measured (the worlds) with His foot. (Thirukural Number 610).

V. V. S. Aiyar quotes that the 610th Tirukkural mentions about the temple Thirivikrama Perumal, Sirkazhi. It is also the place where Thirumangai Alvar after coming back from North India defeated Thirugnana Sambandar in debate and proved Maha Vishnu is the Supreme Lord.[100]

Agananuru, Purananuru, Natrinai and Kurunthogai have mention about the Ulagalantha Perumal Temple, Tirukoyilur. Malayaman Tirumudikari, the ruler of Thirukovilur, was lavished praise in the texts for his charitable disposition to the Thiruvikrama perumal Temple.[85]

Alvar literature[edit]

The Alvars (Tamil: ஆழ்வார், romanized: Āḻvār, lit. 'The Immersed') were the Tamil poet-saints of South India who espoused bhakti (devotion) to the Hindu deity Maha Vishnu, in their songs of longing, ecstasy, and service.[101] They are venerated in Vaishnavism, which regards Vishnu as the Ultimate Reality.

Left to right and wise versa:- Poigai Azhwar, Bhoothath Alvar, Pey Alvar, Thirumalisai Alvar, Nammalvar, Madhurakavi Alvar, Kulasekhara Alvar, Periyalvar, Andal, Thirumangai Alvar, Thiruppaan Alvar and Thondaradippodi Alvar

The devotional outpourings of the Alvars, composed during the early medieval period of Tamil history, were the catalysts behind the Bhakti Movement through their hymns of worship to Vishnu and his avatars. They praised the Divya Desams, the 108 divine realms of deities affiliated to Vaishnavism. The poetry of the Alvars echoes bhakti to God through love, and in the ecstasy of such devotions they sang hundreds of songs which embodied both depth of feeling and the felicity of expressions.[102] The collection of their hymns is known as the Naalayira Divya Prabandham. The bhakti literature that sprang from Alvars has contributed to the establishment and sustenance of a culture that deviated from the Vedic religion and rooted itself in devotion as the only path for salvation. In addition, they contributed to Tamil devotional verses independent of a knowledge of Sanskrit.

Naalayira Divya Prabandham[edit]

The Divya Prabandham sings the praises of Narayana (Vishnu) and his many forms. The Alvars sang these songs at various sacred shrines known as the Divya Desams.[103] The Tamil Vaishnavites are also known as Ubhaya Vedanti (those that follow both Vedas, that is, the Sanskrit Rigveda, Yajurveda, Samaveda, and Atharvaveda, as well as the Tamil-language Tiruvaymoli, a work which devotees of Sri Vaishnavism regard as the Tamil Veda.[104] In many temples — Srirangam, for example — the chanting of the Divya Prabandham forms a major part of the daily service. It is also recited in some North Indian Vaishnavite temples, such as Badrinath.[105] The Divya Prabandham is recited along with the Vedas,[106] and it is given equal status to the Vedas in the Tenkalai denomination of Sri Vaishnavism, largely due to the efforts of Ramanuja who enshrined the Divya Prabandham on the same pedestal as the Vedas.[107]

Prominent among its 4,000 verses are the over 1,100 verses known as the Tiruvaymoli ("verses of the sacred mouth"), composed by Nammalvar (Kaari Maaran, Sadagopan of Alvarthirunagari Temple) and which forms the third portion of the overall Divya Prabandham. Nammalvar self-identifies as a lovelorn gopi pining for Krishna.[104]

The compendium begins with the Tirupallantu, a benedictory hymn written by Periyalvar, wishing long life to Vishnu.[108]

Combination of Sanskrit Vaishnavism and Tamil Vaishnavism[edit]

Nathamuni (10th century), combined the two traditions, by drawing on Sanskrit philosophical tradition and combining it with the aesthetic and emotional appeal of the Tamil Bhakti movement pioneers called the Alvars.[citation needed] Sri Vaishnavism developed in Tamil Nadu in the 9 th century, after Nathamuni returned from a pilgrimage to Vrindavan in north India (modern Uttar Pradesh).[citation needed]

One of the 108 Divya Desam present in Chennai - The Capital of Tamil Nadu
The hall, located in front of Ranganayaki's shrine, where Kambar is believed to have recited his works on Kamba Ramayanam and accepted by Vaishnava Acharya Naathamuni

Nathamuni's ideas were continued by Yamunacharya, who maintained that the Vedas, Vaikhanasa and Pancaratras are equal, devotional rituals and bhakti are important practices.[citation needed] The legacy of Yamunacharya was continued by Ramanuja (1017-1137),[citation needed] but they never met.[109] Legend goes that Ramanuja saw Yamunacharya's corpse, which had three fingers curled. Ramanuja was told that they represented the three wishes that Yamunacharya had revealed before he passed. One of the wishes was that Ramanuja should write a commentary on the Brahma Sutras.[110] Ramanuja, a scholar who studied in an Advaita Vedanta monastery and disagreed with some of the ideas of Advaita, became the most influential leader of Sri Vaishnavism.[111][112] He developed the Visistadvaita ("qualified non-dualism") philosophy.[citation needed]

Kamba Ramayanam[edit]

See also: Kamba Ramayanam

During the period of Nathamuni, Kambar, or Kavichakravarthy Kamban (1180 CE–1250 CE),[113] wrote the Ramavataram, popularly known as Kambaramayanam, the Tamil version of the epic Ramayana.[114]

The original version of Ramayana was written by Valmiki. It is an epic of 24,000 verses which depicts the journey of Rama, a prince of Ayodhya who belonged to Raghuvamsa (Solar dynasty). In Hinduism, Rama is the seventh incarnation of Maha Vishnu.[115] Kambar was inspired by Valmiki and Rewrote the Story of Ramayana in Tamil. The Ramavataram or Kamba Ramayanam of Kamban is an epic of about 11,000 stanzas.[116][117] The Rama-avataram or Rama-kathai as it was originally accepted into the holy precincts in the presence of Vaishnava Acharya Naathamuni.[118] Kambar is believed to have come to the Srirangam Ranganathaswamy Temple to get the approval of his work from scholars. The Vaishnava Acharya Naathamuni and Jain scholar Tirunarungundam honoured the work and it resulted in Tamil and Sanskrit scholars approving the work.[citation needed] The open hall where he recited his verse lies close to the Ranganayaki shrine within the temple and now called as the Kamba Ramayana Mandapam.

Gallery of Old Vishnu Temples[edit]

Temples dedicated to Maha Vishnu[edit]

See also: Divya Desam, Abhimana Kshethram, and Pancha Kshethram

See also[edit]

References[edit]

  1. ^ a b Padmaja, T. (2002). Temples of Kr̥ṣṇa in South India: History, Art, and Traditions in Tamilnāḍu. Abhinav Publications. p. 27. ISBN 978-81-7017-398-4.
  2. ^ Kamil Zvelebil (1973). The Smile of Murugan: On Tamil Literature of South India. BRILL Academic. p. 124. ISBN 90-04-03591-5.
  3. ^ V.N. Muthukumar; Elizabeth Rani Segran (2012). The River Speaks: The Vaiyai Poems from the Paripatal. Penguin Books. pp. 1–7. ISBN 978-81-8475-694-4.
  4. ^ Sykes, Egerton (4 February 2014). Who's who in non-classical mythology. Kendall, Alan, 1939– (2nd ed.). London. ISBN 9781136414442. OCLC 872991268.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  5. ^ "The riches and mysteries of Sree Padmanabhaswamy temple". The Times of India. ISSN 0971-8257. Retrieved 17 August 2023.
  6. ^ Ramesh, M.S (2000). 108 Vaishnavite Divya Desams. Tirumalai Tirupati Devasthanam. p. 137.
  7. ^ a b c d Ramesh, M. S (2000). 108 Vaishnavite Divya Desams. Tirumalai Tirupati Devasthanam. p. 130.
  8. ^ a b Ramesh, M. S (2000). 108 Vaishnavite Divya Desams. Tirumalai Tirupati Devasthanam. p. 134.
  9. ^ a b "Build a world-class museum near Padmanabha Swamy temple". Rediff. 18 July 2011.
  10. ^ T. S. Subramanian (18 July 2011). "Eclectic architecture, exquisite features". The Hindu.
  11. ^ "Treasure belongs to the temple and nobody else". Rediff. 11 July 2011.
  12. ^ a b "The Real Riches of India's Vishnu Temple". HuffPost. 11 July 2011.
  13. ^ A. Srivathsan (7 July 2011). "When the vault was opened in 1931". The Hindu.
  14. ^ Mittal, Sushil; Thursby, G. R. (2005). The Hindu World. New York: Routelge. ISBN 0-203-67414-6.
  15. ^ Sangam literature, Encyclopaedia Britannica
  16. ^ Silappadikaram.
  17. ^ Sircar 1979, p. 64.
  18. ^ Ayyar 1991, p. 462.
  19. ^ Hopkins 2002, pp. 68–69.
  20. ^ "Tirumala Hundi records highest ever income of ₹1,450 crores in 2022". The Hindu. 13 January 2023. ISSN 0971-751X. Retrieved 17 August 2023.
  21. ^ South Indian Railway Co., Ltd 2004, p. 176
  22. ^ "All roads lead to Kanchi". The Hindu. 5 June 2023. ISSN 0971-751X. Retrieved 17 August 2023.
  23. ^ Raman, Srilata (2020). "Reflections on the King of Ascetics (Yatirāja): Rāmānuja in the Devotional Poetry of Vedānta Deśika". In Dominic Goodall; Shaman Hatley; Harunaga Isaacson; Srilata Raman (eds.). Śaivism and the Tantric Traditions: Essays in Honour of Alexis G.J.S. Sanderson. Brill. p. 201. ISBN 9789004432666. JSTOR 10.1163/j.ctv2gjwvrz.16.
  24. ^ Dalal, Roshen (18 April 2014). Hinduism: An Alphabetical Guide. Penguin UK. p. 797. ISBN 978-81-8475-277-9.
  25. ^ Raman, K. V. (2006). Temple Art, Icons and Culture of India and South-East Asia. Sharada Publishing House. p. 141. ISBN 978-81-88934-31-7.
  26. ^ a b Hardy, Friedhelm (1 January 2015). Viraha Bhakti: The Early History of Krsna Devotion. Motilal Banarsidass. p. 156. ISBN 978-81-208-3816-1.
  27. ^ a b Clothey, Fred W. (20 May 2019). The Many Faces of Murukan: The History and Meaning of a South Indian God. With the Poem Prayers to Lord Murukan. Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG. p. 34. ISBN 978-3-11-080410-2.
  28. ^ James G. Lochtefeld (15 December 2001). The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Volume 1. The Rosen Publishing Group, Inc. ISBN 978-0-8239-3179-8.
  29. ^ Upendra Nath Dhal (1978). Goddess Laksmi: Origin and Development. Oriental Publishers & Distributors. p. 109. Goddess Lakşmī is stated as the genetrix of the world; she maintains them as a mother ought to do . So she is often called as the Mātā.
  30. ^ a b Williams, George M. (2003). Handbook of Hindu Mythology. ABC-CLIO, Inc. pp. 196–8. ISBN 1-85109-650-7.
  31. ^ Sashi Bhusan Dasgupta (2004). Evolution of Mother Worship in India. Advaita Ashrama (A Publication House of Ramakrishna Math, Belur Math). p. 20. ISBN 9788175058866.
  32. ^ Isaeva 1993, p. 252.
  33. ^ Carman, John Braisted; Vasudha Narayanan (1989). The Tamil Veda : Piḷḷān's interpretation of the Tiruvāymol̲i. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-09305-0. OCLC 18624684.
  34. ^ "Temple where Goddess Lakshmi is predominant".
  35. ^ a b JV Chelliah 1946, pp. 84, 94.
  36. ^ K. V. Raman (2006). Temple Art, Icons And Culture Of India And South-East Asia. Munshiram Manoharlal. pp. 141, 151 note 3. ISBN 978-81-88934-31-7.
  37. ^ JV Chelliah 1946, pp. 297, 326–327.
  38. ^ Paripadal poem 2 lines 28 to 35
  39. ^ Silapadikaram (book 11, lines 35–40)
  40. ^ a b JV Chelliah 1946, pp. 226–227.
  41. ^ Alain Danielou (Translator) 1993, pp. 30–35.
  42. ^ a b c Alain Danielou (Translator) 1993, pp. 52–55.
  43. ^ a b Dakshinamurthy, A (July 2015). "Akananuru: Neytal – Poem 70". Akananuru. Retrieved 22 July 2019.
  44. ^ Kovaimani & Nagarajan 2013, pp. 145–148.
  45. ^ Ramesh, M. S. (1997). 108 Vaishnavite Divya Desams. T.T. Devasthanams. p. 152.
  46. ^ Singh, Nagendra Kr; Mishra, A. P. (2005). Encyclopaedia of Oriental Philosophy and Religion: A Continuing Series--. Global Vision Publishing House. p. 34. ISBN 978-81-8220-072-2.
  47. ^ a b c "In praise of Vishnu". The Hindu. 24 July 2014. ISSN 0971-751X. Retrieved 17 August 2023.
  48. ^ Dr.C.R.Krishnamurti. "2. The Sangam Period". tripod.com.
  49. ^ Kamil Zvelebil 1973, pp. 123–124.
  50. ^ Kamil Zvelebil (1974). Tamil Literature. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. p. 49. ISBN 978-3-447-01582-0.
  51. ^ JV Chelliah 1946, p. 221.
  52. ^ a b c M. S., Ramesh (1993). 108 Vaishnavite Divya Desams: Divya desams in Pandya Nadu. Tirumalai-Tirupati Devasthanam.
  53. ^ JV Chelliah 1946, pp. 226–227, p. 259 "They feel they are one with the Universe, and reach for high heaven while yet they are on earth, they never depart from virtue, love all life, and live a saintly life of joy supreme.".
  54. ^ M., Rajagopalan (1993). 15 Vaishnava Temples of Tamil Nadu. Chennai, India: Govindaswamy Printers. pp. 119–128.
  55. ^ Kamil Zvelebil 1973, pp. 53–54.
  56. ^ Raoul McLaughlin (2010). Rome and the Distant East: Trade Routes to the Ancient Lands of Arabia, India and China. A&C Black. pp. 48–50. ISBN 978-1-84725-235-7.
  57. ^ Alf Hiltebeitel (1988). The Cult of Draupadī: Mythologies from Gingee to Kurukserta. University of Chicago Press (Motilal Banarsidass 1991 Reprint). pp. 188–190. ISBN 978-81-208-1000-6.
  58. ^ Zvelebil, Kamil (1973). The Smile of Murugan: On Tamil Literature of South India. BRILL. ISBN 978-90-04-03591-1.
  59. ^ Hart, George L; Heifetz, Hank (1999). The four hundred songs of war and wisdom : an anthology of poems from classical Tamil : the Puṟanāṉūṟu. Columbia University Press. ISBN 9780231115629.
  60. ^ a b Kalakam, Turaicămip Pillai, ed. (1950). Purananuru. Madras.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  61. ^ George Hart & Hank Heifetz 2001, pp. xxi, 3–4, 28–32, 41, 139–140, 206, 220.
  62. ^ Hart, George L; Heifetz, Hank (1999). The four hundred songs of war and wisdom : an anthology of poems from classical Tamil : the Puṟanāṉūṟu. Columbia University Press. pp. 219-220. ISBN 9780231115629.
  63. ^ Kamil Zvelebil 1973, pp. 122–123.
  64. ^ Ca. Vē Cuppiramaṇiyan̲; K. M. Irulappan (1980). Heritage of the Tamils: Language and Grammar. International Institute of Tamil Studies. p. 457.
  65. ^ George Hart; Hank Heifetz (1999). The Four Hundred Songs of War and Wisdom: An Anthology of Poems from Classical Tamil : the Purananuru. Columbia University Press. pp. xv–xvii. ISBN 978-0-231-11562-9.
  66. ^ Kamil Zvelebil (1991). Tamil Traditions on Subrahmaṇya-Murugan. Institute of Asian Studies. pp. 80–86.
  67. ^ Ishita Banerjee-Dube; Saurabh Dube (2009). Ancient to modern: religion, power, and community in India. Oxford University Press. pp. 65–66. ISBN 978-0-19-569662-2.
  68. ^ Kamil Zvelebil 1974, pp. 24–25.
  69. ^ C. Vaittiyaliṅka_n (1977). Fine Arts and Crafts in Pattuppāṭṭu and Eṭṭuttokai. Annamalai University. p. 235.
  70. ^ JV Chelliah 1946, pp. 284–286.
  71. ^ Kamil Zvelebil 1973, pp. 29, 57.
  72. ^ Kamil Zvelebil 1973, pp. 57–58.
  73. ^ Kamil Zvelebil 1973, pp. 29, 56–57.
  74. ^ Kamil Zvelebil 1973, pp. 56–57.
  75. ^ JV Chelliah 1946, pp. 98–99.
  76. ^ JV Chelliah 1946, pp. 98–103.
  77. ^ M.S., Ramesh (1993). 108 Vaishnavite Divya Desam Volume 1. Tirupati: Tirumala Tirupati Devasthanams.
  78. ^ a b D. Dennis Hudson (2008). Martha Ann Selby and Indira Viswanathan Peterson (ed.). Tamil Geographies: Cultural Constructions of Space and Place in South India. State University of New York Press. pp. 89–93. ISBN 978-0-7914-7945-2.
  79. ^ Kamil Zvelebil 1974, pp. 25–26.
  80. ^ Kamil Zvelebil 1974, p. 25.
  81. ^ S. R. Balasubrahmanyam (1966). Early Chola Art. Asia Publishers. p. 5.
  82. ^ Hephzibah Jesudasan; G. John Samuel; P. Thiagarajan (1999). Count-down from Solomon, Or, The Tamils Down the Ages Through Their Literature: Caṅkam and the aftermath. Institute of Asian Studies. p. 44.
  83. ^ JV Chelliah 1946, pp. 84, 91, 94.
  84. ^ JV Chelliah 1946, pp. 85.
  85. ^ a b M., Rajagopalan (1993). 15 Vaishnava Temples of Tamil Nadu. Chennai, India: Govindaswamy Printers. pp. 57–65.
  86. ^ Pandian, Pichai Pillai (1931). Cattanar's Manimekalai. Madras: Saiva Siddhanta Works. Retrieved 30 July 2019.
  87. ^ Aiyangar, Rao Bahadur Krishnaswami (1927). Manimekhalai In Its Historical Setting. London: Luzac & Co. Retrieved 30 July 2019.
  88. ^ Shattan, Merchant-Prince (1989). Daniélou, Alain (ed.). Manimekhalai: The Dancer With the Magic Bowl. New York: New Directions.
  89. ^ Alain Danielou (Translator) 1993, pp. 67–71.
  90. ^ a b c Dikshitar, V R Ramachandra (1939). The Silappadikaram. Madras, British India: Oxford University Press. Retrieved 22 July 2019.
  91. ^ a b c d Dennis Hudson (1982). John Stratton Hawley and Donna Marie Wulff (ed.). The Divine Consort: Rādhā and the Goddesses of India. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 238–242. ISBN 978-0-89581-102-8.
  92. ^ a b "The Silappadikaram". 26 August 2023.
  93. ^ a b Tamil Geographies: Cultural Constructions of Space and Place in South India. SUNY Press. 22 May 2008. ISBN 9780791472453.
  94. ^ a b "The Silappadikaram". 26 August 2023.
  95. ^ Tieken, Herman (28 December 2021). Kāvya in South India: Old Tamil Caṅkam Poetry. BRILL. p. 186. ISBN 978-90-04-48609-6.
  96. ^ a b D. Kinsley (1974), Through the Looking Glass, History of Religions, 13(4), pp. 270–305
  97. ^ "58th name in the Vishnu Sahasranama is लोहिताक्षः - lohitākṣaḥ - Red-eyed"
  98. ^ Ananthanathan, A.K. (1994). "Theory and Functions of the State The Concept of aṟam (virtue) in Tirukkural". East and West. 44 (2/4): 321. JSTOR 29757156.
  99. ^ Zvelebil, Kamil (1984). "Tirukural, translated from Tamil into Russian by J. Glazov". Archiv Orientální. 32: 681–682.
  100. ^ R., Dr. Vijayalakshmy (2001). An introduction to religion and Philosophy - Tévarám and Tivviyappirapantam (1st ed.). Chennai: International Institute of Tamil Studies. pp. 471–2.
  101. ^ Andrea Nippard. "The Alvars" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 December 2013. Retrieved 20 April 2013.
  102. ^ "Indian Literature Through the Ages". Indian literature, Govt of India. Archived from the original on 15 May 2013. Retrieved 20 April 2013.
  103. ^ Rajarajan, R.K.K. (2013). "Historical sequence of the Vaiṣṇava Divyadeśas. Sacred venues of Viṣṇism". Acta Orientalia, Societates Orientales Danica Fennica Norvegia Svecia. 74: 37–90.
  104. ^ a b Carman, John (1989). The Tamil Veda: Pillan's Interpretation of the Tiruvaymoli. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 4.
  105. ^ Prabhu, S. (8 August 2013). "Dance of Devotion". The Hindu. ISSN 0971-751X. Retrieved 6 March 2021.
  106. ^ Ramesh, M. S. (1992). 108 Vaishnavite Divya Desams: Divya desams in Chola Nadu. T.T. Devasthanams. p. 42.
  107. ^ Gupta, Sonika; Padmanabhan, Sudarsan (19 September 2017). Politics and Cosmopolitanism in a Global Age. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-317-34132-1.
  108. ^ Venkatacharya, T. (1999). Śrīveṅkaṭeśasuprabhātam. Adyar Library and Research Centre. p. 66. ISBN 978-81-85141-28-2.
  109. ^ Jon Paul Sydnor (2012). Ramanuja and Schleiermacher: Toward a Constructive Comparative Theology. Casemate. pp. 20–22 with footnote 32. ISBN 978-0227680247.
  110. ^ "Ramanuja | Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy". Retrieved 21 July 2023.
  111. ^ Patrick Olivelle (1992). The Samnyasa Upanisads : Hindu Scriptures on Asceticism and Renunciation. Oxford University Press. pp. 10–11, 17–18. ISBN 978-0-19-536137-7.
  112. ^ J.A.B. van Buitenen (2008), Ramanuja - Hindu theologian and Philosopher, Encyclopædia Britannica
  113. ^ "Kampan | Tamil Poet, Epic Writer, Bhakti Movement | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 17 August 2023.
  114. ^ The Cyclopaedia of India and of Eastern and Southern Asia By Edward Balfour
  115. ^ "A dictionary on Kambaramayanam with 22,000 words and phrases launched". The Hindu. 14 June 2023. ISSN 0971-751X. Retrieved 17 August 2023.
  116. ^ Legend of Ram By Sanujit Ghose
  117. ^ Gopal, Madan (1990). K.S. Gautam (ed.). India through the ages. Publication Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India. p. 212.
  118. ^ Rays and Ways of Indian Culture By D. P. Dubey
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vaishnavism_in_Ancient_Tamilakam&oldid=1213479717"