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Alum industry in North Yorkshire
Peak alum works (Ravenscar)
Process typeChemical
FeedstockAlum shale
Urine (human)
Product(s)Alum
Year of inventionc. 17th century–19th century

The alum industry in Yorkshire was a major chemical industry in North Yorkshire England between the 17th and the 19th centuries. The production of alum was suited to North Yorkshire due to the presence of the shale rock needed to make the alum sulphate which was essential as a dyeing agent until synthetic dyes became widely available in the 19th century. Production of alum in North Yorkshire peaked in 1769 with approximately 6,000 tonnes (6,600 tons) produced. The alum industry in North Yorkshire has been labelled the first of the dirty industries in the area, with ironstone mining, steelmaking and the broader Teesside chemical industry all following on from the alum workings. Apart from one large site in Lancashire, almost all of the industrial alum supplied to Britain originated in North Yorkshire. Smaller concerns were operated sporadically in Dorset and London.

History[edit]

For over 250 years, the coastal and moorland areas of North Yorkshire were the centre of the alum industry in England.[1] Alum was required for tanning, medicines, and most importantly, as a mordant for fixing dye into clothes, before the industrial revolution allowed dyes distilled from coal via a sulphuric acid method to be readily available.[2][3] In the Elizabethan age, most alum was acquired from workings in Italy, and as the both Henry VII and Elizabeth I had seceded from Catholicism to form the Church of England, and Italy was staunchly Catholic, the availability of supply was controlled entirely by the Italians and meant that the supply could be turned off due to political whims.[4] Sir Thomas Challoner discovered alum-shale rocks on his estates in Guisborough, and he set about exploiting this resource and received Royal Assent from James I, but after two years of operation, the licence to produce alum passed to the crown.[5] By the year 1609, a law had been passed prohibiting the import of foreign alum.[6]

North Yorkshire became a powerhouse region for the creation of alum and its associated transportation. Other sites were tried throughout Britain, including Lancashire, Dorset, and London. The site in London was quite close to the Tower of London and was started during the reign of Charles I, but was suppressed in 1627 due to the "loathsome vapour" that the site produced, and was alleged to have been poisoning the fish in the Thames.[7]

Alum shales were quarried, then burnt on huge open fires of brushwood, sometimes for up to nine months.[8] The stacks for burning often were 98 feet (30 m) wide, and 49 feet (15 m) high. [9] The resulting powder was steeped in tanks of water (Lixiviation), which extracted the sulphates of iron, and the pyrites within the shale produced sulphuric acid, which in turn, precipitated the alumina. It could take up to 33–100 tonnes (36–110 tons) of alum shale rock to produce 1-tonne (1.1-ton) of alum.[10] The key to the best time to stop heating the resultant liquor was to float a hen's egg in the liquor to act as a hydrometer.[11] When the egg floated to the top of the liquor, it was ready to be separated out.[12] At this point, the yellow iron silicate (known as Slam) was siphoned off the liquor, and could be sold on to make fertiliser.[13] This process of firing, cooling, settling, heating, separating and mixing, has led to it being labelled the first of Yorkshire's dirty industries.[14]

The alum industry helped develop the port of Whitby as not only was the finished product exported through the port, but coal had to be brought in for the process.[15][16] Another important ingredient in the process was the use of human urine as a source of ammonia, which initially came locally from Whitby, and then from Newcastle and Hull, but the amounts supplied proved insufficient (2 tonnes (2.2 tons) of urine was needed to make 1-tonne (1.1-ton) of alum).[17] The supply chain was switched to London, with collected urine being sent north in tubs. The preferred urine was that from the poorer classes, as they tended to drink beer not wine, the resultant urine was better for the process.[17] This had a secondary benefit in sewage disposal for the City of London, and those supplying the urine were paid for the product.[18] Alternatively, burnt kelp was used to precipitate potassium sulphate in the process.[19]

The location of alum workings extended from Ravenscar on the coast at its southern extent north-westwards towards Skinningrove, before curving inland at the foot of the Cleveland Hills escarpment, finishing near Osmotherley in the small village of Thimbleby.[11][20] In 1769, production of alum peaked at 6,000 tonnes (6,600 tons),[21] however, by the end of the 18th century, the alum was selling £13 per tonne, when it cost £14 per tonne to make.[22] The band of alum shale in North Yorkshire is typically 100 feet (30 m) thick, and exists at varying depths. The lower section of shale was not used as it was low on the alumina sulphate and its composition had a greater ratio of bituminous material within it.[23]

The village of Sandsend, so called because that is where the sandy stretch of beach northwards from Whitby literally ends, was developed as a village for those employed at the nearby alum works.[24] The alum shale depths in the cliffs there reached almost 90 feet (27 m), and the coastal location was able to take advantage of sea transport. Inland locations were hampered by their lack of transport methods, whereas the coastal locations had easy access to the sea.[25] Additionally, inland locations had the problem of overburden, which in the instances of coastal alum workings, the overburden was simply tipped into the sea.[8] A lot of the inland locations, particularly the early ones around Guisborough, exported their alum through the Port of Whitby, which not only increased trade through Whitby, but led to growth of the town.[26]

Whilst alum workings ceased operating in the second half of the 19th century, commercial exploitation of alum continued in the Sandsend area for a type of cement until well into the 20th century. The product was known as Mulgrave Cement, and was made at a plant in East Row (Sandsend) between 1811 and 1936.[27][28] The cement was widely used locally for vases, tiles, pipes, chimney pots and concrete blocks.[29]

Sites[edit]

Below is a list of major sites in North Yorkshire providing alum to Britain between 1600 and 1870. The bulk of alum production in Britain on an industrial scale was centred on the North Yorkshire region, although one major site did operate in Lancashire,[30] and others were on the south coast of England, notably in Dorset and Hampshire.[31] Archaeological investigations have determined 22 major sites in North Yorkshire, although 50 have been known to have operated throughout England between the 17th and 19th centuries.[2]

Main alum producing sites on the North Yorkshire Coast[32]
Name Location Coords Dates[a] Notes Ref
Ayton Banks Great Ayton 54°29′20″N 1°05′35″W / 54.489°N 1.093°W / 54.489; -1.093 1765 – 1771 Short-lived site, abandoned when better locations were developed on the coast. Initially, the site opened after the price of alum per tonne increased (the price had fallen sharply during the Seven Years War). It appears that after 1771, the site was not used again for alum production. [31][33]
Boulby Boulby 54°33′58″N 0°50′17″W / 54.566°N 0.838°W / 54.566; -0.838 1650 – 1870 [34]
Carlton Carlton-in-Cleveland 54°25′05″N 1°11′56″W / 54.418°N 1.199°W / 54.418; -1.199 c. 1680 – 1774 The alum works were located on the slopes of the Cleveland Hills facing towards Teesside. [35][36]
Goathland Banks Littlebeck 54°26′20″N 0°39′14″W / 54.439°N 0.654°W / 54.439; -0.654 1765 – 1805 Also known as Godeland Banks. [37]
Kettleness Kettleness 54°31′55″N 0°42′50″W / 54.532°N 0.714°W / 54.532; -0.714 1728 – 1861 [38]
Littlebeck Littlebeck 54°25′48″N 0°38′38″W / 54.430°N 0.644°W / 54.430; -0.644 1660 – 1809 Sometimes known as Thornhill to distinguish it from the other site at Goathland Banks [37]
Lingberry Loftus 54°34′08″N 0°50′42″W / 54.569°N 0.845°W / 54.569; -0.845
Peak Ravenscar 54°24′18″N 0°30′07″W / 54.405°N 0.502°W / 54.405; -0.502 1650 – 1862 Peak is one of the best preserved sites on the coast and is now a scheduled monument. [39]
Saltwick Bay Whitby 54°28′55″N 0°34′44″W / 54.482°N 0.579°W / 54.482; -0.579 1649 – 1791 Production ceased between 1708 and 1755, though in 1764, Saltwick Bay is recorded as producing 240 tonnes (260 tons) per year, just less than 10% of the output of alum from the North Yorkshire region. [40]
Sandsend Ness Lythe 54°30′43″N 0°40′23″W / 54.512°N 0.673°W / 54.512; -0.673 1613 – c. 1880 [41][42][35]
Selby Hagg Skelton-in-Cleveland 54°34′01″N 0°57′25″W / 54.567°N 0.957°W / 54.567; -0.957 1612 – 1776 Selby Hagg was also known as Saltburn Works, though it was nearer Skelton-in-Cleveland
Slapewath Guisborough 54°31′48″N 1°00′36″W / 54.530°N 1.010°W / 54.530; -1.010 1603 – 1653
1662 – 1698
1765 – 1805 		Slapewath is thought to be the first alum quarry in Cleveland and in the United Kingdom. Had three periods of working. [43][44]
Stoupe Brow Ravenscar 54°24′54″N 0°31′23″W / 54.415°N 0.523°W / 54.415; -0.523 1752 – 1817
  1. ^ Dates of production may not have been continuous. Only the start and end dates are given

Sites which trialled producing alum, or had a very short working life, included Cringle Moor, Easington, Grosmont, Hawsker, Ingleby, Kirkleatham, and Thimbleby.[45][46]

References[edit]

  1. ^ Jecock 2009, p. 54.
  2. ^ a b Scott, Bax & Lotherington 2015, p. 10.
  3. ^ Chapman 1968, p. 11.
  4. ^ Chaloner, Michael E. (2018). Alum Extraction around the North Yorkshire Moors. Danby: North Yorkshire Moors Association. p. 59. ISBN 9780956577955.
  5. ^ Rutter 1961, pp. 3–4.
  6. ^ Nef, John U. (1936). "A Comparison of Industrial Growth in France and England from 1540 to 1640: III". Journal of Political Economy. 44 (5). Chicago: University of Chicago Press: 651. ISSN 0022-3808.
  7. ^ Nef, John U. (1936). "A Comparison of Industrial Growth in France and England from 1540 to 1640: III". Journal of Political Economy. 44 (5). Chicago: University of Chicago Press: 663. ISSN 0022-3808.
  8. ^ a b Rutter 1961, p. 4.
  9. ^ Kent, Peter; Gaunt, G. D. (1980) [1948]. Eastern England from the Tees to the Wash (2. ed.). London: Her Majesty's Stationery Office. p. 40. ISBN 0-11-884121-1.
  10. ^ Simmons, Ian G. (2003). The moorlands of England and Wales: an environmental history 8000 BC to AD 2000. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. p. 99. ISBN 0-7486-1730-2.
  11. ^ a b Kent 1980, p. 40.
  12. ^ Osborne 1999, p. 22.
  13. ^ Smout, Thomas Christopher (2000). Nature contested: environmental history in Scotland and Northern England since 1600. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. p. 72. ISBN 0-7486-1410-9.
  14. ^ Chance, Stephen (20 November 2013). "Was alum the first example of the north-east's 'dirty' industries?". The Guardian. Retrieved 12 December 2021.
  15. ^ East, W. G. (December 1932). "The Historical Geography of the Town, Port, and Roads of Whitby". The Geographical Journal. 80 (6): 490. doi:10.2307/1784149.
  16. ^ Pevsner, Nikolaus (2002). Yorkshire, the North Riding. London: Yale University Press. p. 388. ISBN 0300096658.
  17. ^ a b Norfolk, Andrew (25 July 2003). "Cliffs reveal history down to last drop". The Times. No. 67824. p. 14. ISSN 0140-0460.
  18. ^ Chaloner, Michael E. (2018). "16; Alum Extraction around the North Yorkshire Moors". The History Tree. Danby: North Yorkshire Moors Association. p. 60. ISBN 9780956577955.
  19. ^ Bowes 1948, p. 31.
  20. ^ Rutter 1961, p. 3.
  21. ^ Kent 1980, p. 128.
  22. ^ Jones, Stephanie Karen (1982). A Maritime History of the Port of Whitby, 1700-1914 (PDF) (Report). London: University College London. p. 246. OCLC 556832649. Retrieved 12 January 2024.
  23. ^ Fox-Strangways & Barrow 1915, p. 18.
  24. ^ Osborne 1999, p. 19.
  25. ^ Chapman 1968, p. 12.
  26. ^ Pevsner, Nikolaus (2002) [1966]. Yorkshire, the North Riding. London: Yale University Press. p. 388. ISBN 0-300-09665-8.
  27. ^ Rutter 1961, p. 5.
  28. ^ "History provides setting for a great walk". Darlington and Stockton Times. 21 September 2012. Retrieved 13 January 2024.
  29. ^ Bowes 1948, p. 35.
  30. ^ "Industrial archaeology". northyorkmoors.org.uk. Retrieved 12 December 2021.
  31. ^ a b Historic England. "Ayton Banks alum works (Grade Not applicable to this entry) (1020347)". National Heritage List for England. Retrieved 12 March 2022.
  32. ^ Osborne 1999, p. 17.
  33. ^ Pearson, Trevor; Hunt, Abby (2004). "Ayton Banks Alum Works, North Yorkshire. Survey Report". Archaeological Investigation Report Series (26/2004). Swindon: English Heritage: 3. doi:10.5284/1055353. ISSN 1478-7008.
  34. ^ Scott, Bax & Lotherington 2015, p. 12.
  35. ^ a b Rutter 1961, p. 6.
  36. ^ Page 1968, p. 232.
  37. ^ a b Chapman 1968, p. 13.
  38. ^ Scott, Bax & Lotherington 2015, p. 13.
  39. ^ Historic England. "Peak Alum Works (1018146)". National Heritage List for England. Retrieved 12 December 2021.
  40. ^ Marshall 1994, p. 3.
  41. ^ Historic England. "Alum quarries and works 800m north of Sandsend Bridge (1018139)". National Heritage List for England. Retrieved 12 December 2021.
  42. ^ Scott, Bax & Lotherington 2015, p. 14.
  43. ^ "Slapewath Works". teeswildlife.org. Retrieved 13 January 2024.
  44. ^ "Cleveland Way Alum Sites Guide" (PDF). teeswildlife.org. p. 2. Retrieved 13 January 2024.
  45. ^ Chapman 1968, p. 10.
  46. ^ Page 1968, p. 343.

Sources[edit]

  • Bowes, Ida (1948). Cleveland and Tees-Side. A geographical study of population and occupational changes since 1800. London: Bedford College (University of London). ISBN 978-1-339-61283-6.
  • Chapman, S. Keith (1968). "Alum industry of North East Yorkshire". Bulletin (5). Barnard Castle: Industrial Archaeology Group for the North East. OCLC 1015424263.
  • Fox-Strangways, Charles; Barrow, George (1915). The geology of the country between Whitby and Scarborough. London: HMSO. OCLC 5463820.
  • Jecock, Marcus (2009). "A Fading Memory: The North Yorkshire Coastal Alum Industry in the Light of Recent Analytical Field Survey by English Heritage". Industrial Archaeology Review. 31 (1). Leeds: Maney Publications. doi:10.1179/174581909X424772. ISSN 0309-0728. OCLC 218601012.
  • Kent, Peter (1980). British regional geology : Eastern England from the Tees to the Wash (2 ed.). London: H.M.S.O. ISBN 0118841211.
  • Marshall, Gary (1994). "Saltwick Alum Works; an archaeological interpretation". Scarborough and District Archaeological Society Research Report (11). Scarborough: Scarborough Archaeological and Historical Society. OCLC 1035781828.
  • Osborne, Roger (1999). The floating egg : episodes in the making of geology. London: Pimlico. ISBN 0712666869.
  • Page, William (1968). The Victoria history of the county of York, North Riding, volume 2. London: Dawsons of Pall Mall for the University of London Institute of Historical Research. ISBN 0712903100.
  • Rutter, J. G. (1961). "Alum: a brief history of a dead industry". Transactions of the Scarborough and District Archaeological Society. 1 (4). Scarborough: Scarborough Archaeological and Historical Society. ISSN 1474-1229. OCLC 2324885.
  • Scott, Gillian; Bax, Samantha; Lotherington, Rupert (2015). "Archaeological Excavation and Survey of Scheduled Coastal Alum Working Sites at Boulby, Kettleness, Sandsend and Saltwick, North Yorkshire". Archaeological Research Services (42). Hebburn: Archaeological Research Services Ltd: 10. doi:10.5284/1055918.
  • Williams, Michael A. (2019) [2012]. The Whitby - Loftus Line (Revised ed.). Catrine: Oakwood Press. ISBN 978-0-85361-542-2.

External links[edit]

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