User:Noahcamin/sandbox

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Social research is a research conducted by social scientists following a systematic plan. Social research methodologies can be classified as quantitative and qualitative.[1]

  • Qualitative research stems from using more personal communication and tends to be more focused on a smaller population.[2]'
  • Quantitative research stems from using data and numerical values and can be used for large populations.[2]

Although most professionals use one method or the other, their research may contain both methods. Depending on what the researcher is doing, they may be required to use both qualitative and quantitative methods to achieve their results.

  • "Primary Research is conducted by the researchers themselves."[3] This data is highly accurate and collected first-hand. The questions are specified for the target market.
  • "Secondary Research is a method where information has already been collected by research organizations or marketers."[3] The data has already been collected from primary sources and is then combined to make conclusions.

Foundations of Social Research[edit]

Sociological positivism[edit]

Émile Durkheim

The origin of the survey can be traced back as early as the Domesday Book in 1086,[4][5] while some scholars pinpoint the origin of demography to 1663 with the publication of John Graunt's Natural and Political Observations upon the Bills of Mortality.[6] Social research began most intentionally, however, with the positivist philosophy of science in the early 19th century. Statistical sociological research, and indeed the formal academic discipline of sociology, began with the work of Émile Durkheim (1858–1917). While Durkheim rejected much of the detail of Auguste Comte's philosophy, he retained and refined its method, maintaining that the social sciences are a logical continuation of the natural ones into the realm of human activity, and insisting that they may retain the same objectivity, rationalism, and approach to causality.[7] Durkheim set up the first European department of sociology at the University of Bordeaux in 1895, publishing his Rules of the Sociological Method (1895).[8] In this text, he argued: "[o]ur main goal is to extend scientific rationalism to human conduct. ... What has been called our positivism is but a consequence of this rationalism."[9]

Modern methodologies[edit]

In the early 20th century innovation in survey methodology was developed that is still dominant. In 1928, the psychologist Louis Leon Thurstone developed a method to select and score multiple items with which to measure complex ideas, such as attitudes towards religion. In the mid-20th century there was a general—but not universal—trend for American sociology to be more scientific, due to the prominence at that time of action theory and other system-theoretical approaches. By the turn of the 1960s, sociological research was increasingly employed as a tool by governments and businesses worldwide. Sociologists developed new types of quantitative and qualitative research methods. Paul Lazarsfeld founded Columbia University's Bureau of Applied Social Research, where he exerted a tremendous influence over the techniques and the organization of social research. Lazarsfeld made great strides in statistical survey analysis, panel methods,[10] latent structure analysis, and contextual analysis.[11] Many of his ideas have been so influential as to now be considered self-evident.

Method[edit]

Social scientists are divided into camps of support for particular research techniques. These disputes relate to the historical core of social theory (positivism and antipositivism; structure and agency). While very different in many aspects, both qualitative and quantitative approaches involve a systematic interaction between theory and data.[12] The choice of method often depends largely on what the researcher intends to investigate. For example, a researcher concerned with drawing a statistical generalization across an entire population may administer a survey questionnaire to a representative sample population. By contrast, a researcher who seeks full contextual understanding of an individuals' social actions may choose ethnographic participant observation or open-ended interviews. Studies will commonly combine, or triangulate, quantitative and qualitative methods as part of a multi-strategy design.

Sampling[edit]

The process of collecting information from a sample is referred to as sampling. Sampling methods may be either random (random sampling, systematic sampling, stratified sampling, cluster sampling) or non-random/nonprobability (convenience sampling, purposive sampling, snowball sampling).[12] The most common reason for sampling is to obtain information about a population. Sampling is quicker and cheaper than a complete census of a population. Typically a population is very large, making a census or a complete enumeration of all the values in that population infeasible. In positivist research, statistics derived from a sample are analyzed to draw inferences regarding the population as a whole.

Methodological assumptions[edit]

Social research is based on logic and empirical observations. Charles C. Ragin writes in his Constructing Social Research book that "Social research involved the interaction between ideas and evidence. Ideas help social researchers make sense of evidence, and researchers use evidence to extend, revise and test ideas." Social research thus attempts to create or validate theories through data collection and data analysis, and its goal is exploration, description, explanation, and prediction. It should never lead or be mistaken with philosophy or belief. Social research aims to find social patterns of regularity in social life and usually deals with social groups (aggregates of individuals), not individuals themselves (although the science of psychology is an exception here). Research can also be divided into pure research and applied research. Pure research has no application on real life, whereas applied research attempts to influence the real world.

There are no laws in social science that parallel the laws in natural science. A law in social science is a universal generalization about a class of facts. A fact is an observed phenomenon, and observation means it has been seen, heard or otherwise experienced by the researcher. A theory is a systematic explanation for the observations that relate to a particular aspect of social life. Concepts are the basic building blocks of theory and are abstract elements representing classes of phenomena. Axioms or postulates are basic assertions assumed to be true. Propositions are conclusions drawn about the relationships among concepts, based on analysis of axioms. Hypotheses are specified expectations about empirical reality derived from propositions. Social research involves testing these hypotheses to see if they are true.

Social research involves creating a theory, operationalization (measurement of variables) and observation (actual collection of data to test hypothesized relationship). Social theories are written in the language of variables, in other words, theories describe logical relationships between variables. Variables are logical sets of attributes, with people being the "carriers" of those variables (for example, gender can be a variable with two attributes: male and female). Variables are also divided into independent variables (data) that influences the dependent variables (which scientists are trying to explain). For example, in a study of how different dosages of a drug are related to the severity of symptoms of a disease, a measure of the severity of the symptoms of the disease is a dependent variable and the administration of the drug in specified doses is the independent variable. Researchers will compare the different values of the dependent variable (severity of the symptoms) and attempt to conclude.

Guidelines for "good research"[edit]

When social scientists speak of "good research" the guidelines refer to how the science is mentioned and understood. It does not refer to how the results are but how they are figured. Glenn Firebaugh summarizes the principles for good research in his book Seven Rules for Social Research. The first rule is that "There should be the possibility of surprise in social research."[13] As Firebaugh (p. 1) elaborates: "Rule 1 is intended to warn that you don't want to be blinded by preconceived ideas so that you fail to look for contrary evidence, or you fail to recognize contrary evidence when you do encounter it, or you recognize contrary evidence but suppress it and refuse to accept your findings for what they appear to say."[13]

Also, good research will "look for differences that make a difference"[13] (Rule 2) and "build in reality checks"[13] (Rule 3). Rule 4 advises researchers to replicate, that is, "to see if identical analyses yield similar results for different samples of people"[13] (p. 90). The next two rules urge researchers to "compare like with like"[13] (Rule 5) and to "study change"[13] (Rule 6); these two rules are especially important when researchers want to estimate the effect of one variable on another (e.g. how much does college education actually matter for wages?). The final rule, "Let method be the servant, not the master,"[13] reminds researchers that methods are the means, not the end, of social research; it is critical from the outset to fit the research design to the research issue, rather than the other way around.

Explanations in social theories can be idiographic or nomothetic. An idiographic approach to an explanation is one where the scientists seek to exhaust the idiosyncratic causes of a particular condition or event, i.e. by trying to provide all possible explanations of a particular case. Nomothetic explanations tend to be more general with scientists trying to identify a few causal factors that impact a wide class of conditions or events. For example, when dealing with the problem of how people choose a job, idiographic explanation would be to list all possible reasons why a given person (or group) chooses a given job, while nomothetic explanation would try to find factors that determine why job applicants, in general, choose a given job.

Research in science and social science is a long, slow and difficult process that sometimes produces false results because of methodological weaknesses and in rare cases because of fraud so that reliance on any one study is inadvisable.[14]

Ethics[edit]

Further information: Human subject research

The ethics of social research are shared with those of medical research. In the United States, these are formalized by the Belmont Report as:

Respect for persons[edit]

The principle of respect for persons holds that (a) individuals should be respected as autonomous agents capable of making their own decisions, and that (b) subjects with diminished autonomy deserve special considerations.[15] A cornerstone of this principle is the use of informed consent.

Beneficence[edit]

The principle of beneficence holds that (a) the subjects of research should be protected from harm, and, (b) the research should bring tangible benefits to society. By this definition, research with no scientific merit is automatically considered unethical.[15]

Justice[edit]

The principle of justice states the benefits of research should be distributed fairly. The definition of fairness used is case-dependent, varying between "(1) to each person an equal share, (2) to each person according to individual need, (3) to each person according to individual effort, (4) to each person according to societal contribution, and (5) to each person according to merit."[15]

When your patient is in a clinical trial, you must do the following:[16]

  1. Make certain the study has been approved by an IRB.
  2. Ensure an informed consent has been signed.
  3. Ensure the patient understands the clinical trial. If you are uncomfortable answering questions about the trial, contact someone involved with the study such as a research coordinator or the principal investigator.
  4. Make sure the patient is not bullied or threatened to participate in the study.
  5. When caring for a patient in a clinical trial, be alert for possible adverse events and report them to the appropriate person.
  6. Show support and respect for the autonomy of the patients. Support their decision to participate in clinical research and, if they so choose, their decision to refuse to participate or to withdraw from the study.
  7. Make certain all subjects receive at least the minimum standard of care.

The purpose of these guidelines is to ensure that all legal rights are protected for the human subject.

Types of method[edit]

The following list of research methods is not exhaustive:

Research Methods
Quantitative Methods
Qualitative Methods
Mixed Methods
 Primary Methods Secondary Methods

References[edit]

  1. ^ Shackman, Gene. What is Program Evaluation, A Beginner's Guide. Module 3. Methods. The Global Social Change Research Project. 2009. Available at http://www.ideas-int.org. See Resources.
  2. ^ a b "Social Research - Definition, Types and Methods". QuestionPro. 2018-07-11. Retrieved 2019-10-15.
  3. ^ a b "Social Research - Definition, Types and Methods". QuestionPro. 2018-07-11. Retrieved 2019-10-18.
  4. ^ Halsey, A. H. (2004-03-18), "Literature or Science?", A History of Sociology in Britain, Oxford University Press, pp. 15–28, ISBN 9780199266609, retrieved 2019-10-19
  5. ^ Carroll, Kathleen M.; Mitchell, G. Duncan (July 1981). "A New Dictionary of the Social Sciences". Contemporary Sociology. 10 (4): 603. doi:10.2307/2067784. ISSN 0094-3061.
  6. ^ Willcox, Walter F. (January 1938). "The Founder of Statistics". Revue de l'Institut International de Statistique / Review of the International Statistical Institute. 5 (4): 321. doi:10.2307/1400906. ISSN 0373-1138.
  7. ^ Downes, David; Outhwaite, William; Bottomore, Tom (March 1995). "The Blackwell Dictionary of Twentieth Century Social Thought". The British Journal of Sociology. 46 (1): 158. doi:10.2307/591642. ISSN 0007-1315.
  8. ^ Poggi, Gianfranco (2000-09-21). Durkheim. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780198780878.
  9. ^ Durkheim, Emile (1982), "Rules for the Demonstration of Sociological Proof", The Rules of Sociological Method, Macmillan Education UK, pp. 147–163, ISBN 9780333280720, retrieved 2019-10-19
  10. ^ Kunzi, H. P.; Lazarsfeld, Paul F.; Henry, Neil W. (July 1968). "Readings in Mathematical Social Science". Econometrica. 36 (3/4): 619. doi:10.2307/1909535. ISSN 0012-9682.
  11. ^ Jerabek, H. (2001-09-01). "Paul Lazarsfeld--The Founder of Modern Empirical Sociology: A Research Biography". International Journal of Public Opinion Research. 13 (3): 229–244. doi:10.1093/ijpor/13.3.229. ISSN 1353-4505.
  12. ^ a b Haralambos, Michael. (2004). Sociology : themes and perspectives. Holborn, Martin. (6th ed ed.). London: Collins. ISBN 000715447X. OCLC 54975320. {{cite book}}: |edition= has extra text (help)
  13. ^ a b c d e f g h Firebaugh, Glenn (2008). Seven Rules for Social Research. Princeton University Press.
  14. ^ Bohannon, John (2015-09-30). "Predatory publishers earned $75 million last year, study finds". Science. doi:10.1126/science.aad4652. ISSN 0036-8075.
  15. ^ a b c Mechanic, David (1978). "Ethical Problems in the Delivery of Health Services: A Report to the National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research". PsycEXTRA Dataset. Retrieved 2019-10-19.
  16. ^ Sims, Jennifer M. (July 2010). "A Brief Review of the Belmont Report". Dimensions of Critical Care Nursing. 29 (4): 173. doi:10.1097/DCC.0b013e3181de9ec5. ISSN 0730-4625.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Noahcamin/sandbox&oldid=929440768"