User:Jshflynn/Language

Afroasiatic Austronesian Khoe–Kwadi Kx'a Niger–Congo Nilo-Saharan? Tuu Mande? Songhay? Ijaw? Ubangian? Kadu?
Isolates	Bangime Hadza Jalaa Sandawe Laal? Shabo?

Eurasia
(Europe
and Asia)

Isolates

New Guinea
and the Pacific

Isolates

Australia

Arnhem/Macro-Gunwinyguan? Bunuban Darwin Region? Eastern Daly Eastern Tasmanian Garawan Iwaidjan Jarrakan Marrku–Wurrugu? Mirndi Northern Tasmanian Northeastern Tasmanian Nyulnyulan Pama–Nyungan Southern Daly? Tangkic Wagaydyic Western Daly Western Tasmanian Worrorran Yangmanic (incl. Wagiman)?
Isolates	Giimbiyu Malak-Malak (Northern Daly?) Tiwi

North
America

Algic Alsea Caddoan Chimakuan Chinookan Chumashan Comecrudan Coosan Eskaleut Iroquoian Kalapuyan Keres Maiduan Muskogean Na-Dene Palaihnihan Plateau Penutian Pomoan Salishan Shastan Siouan Tanoan Tsimshianic Utian Uto-Aztecan Wakashan Wintuan Yukian Yuman–Cochimí
Isolates	Chimariko Esselen Haida Karuk Kutenai Seri Siuslaw Takelma Timucua Tonkawa Waikuri Washo Yana Yokuts Yuchi Zuni

Mesoamerica

Chibchan Jicaquean Lencan Mayan Misumalpan Mixe–Zoque Oto-Manguean Tequistlatecan Totonacan Uto-Aztecan Xincan
Isolates	Cuitlatec Huave Tarascan/Purépecha

South
America

Isolates
(extant in 2000)

Sign
languages

Arab BANZSL Chinese Francosign Germanosign Indo-Pakistani Japanese Original Thai Swedish Tanzanian?
Isolates	See list of sign languages

See also

Families with question marks (?) are disputed or controversial.
Families in italics have no living members.
Families with more than 30 languages are in bold.

v t e Proto-Indo-European language
Phonology	Accent Centum and satem Glottalic theory Laryngeal theory s-mobile Sound laws boukólos rule kʷetwóres rule Glossary of sound laws Brugmann's Bartholomae's Fortunatov's Grassmann's Osthoff's Pinault's Siebs's Sievers's (Edgerton's converse) Stang's Szemerényi's Weise's
Morphology	Ablaut Caland system h₂e-conjugation Narten present Nasal infix Root Thematic vowel Vṛddhi
Parts of speech	Nominals (nouns and adjectives) Numerals Particles Pronouns Verbs copula Vocabulary
Main sources	Indogermanisches etymologisches Wörterbuch (IEW) Lexikon der indogermanischen Verben (LIV) Lexikon der indogermanischen Partikeln und Pronominalstämme (LIPP) Nomina im Indogermanischen Lexikon (NIL) Indo-European Etymological Dictionary (IEED)
Origins	Indo-European migrations Proto-Indo-European homeland Salmon problem
Artificial compositions	Schleicher's fable The king and the god
Theories	Kurgan hypothesis Schleicher theories Anatolian hypothesis Armenian hypothesis Outdated theories: Beech argument North European hypothesis
See also	Proto-Indo-European mythology Proto-Indo-European society Indo-European studies Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture (EIE)

Articles related to Germanic languages

Germanic languages

According to contemporary philology

West

Anglo-Frisian

Anglic

English
- dialects
- Old English
- Middle English
- Modern English
  - Early Modern English
Irish Middle English
- Fingallian
- Kildare
- Yola
Scots
- Early Scots
- Middle Scots

Frisian

Historical forms	Old Frisian Middle Frisian
East Frisian	Ems Saterland Frisian Weser Wangerooge Frisian Wursten Frisian
North Frisian	Insular Eiderstedt Föhr–Amrum Föhr Amrum Heligolandic Sylt Mainland Bökingharde Mooring Halligen Goesharde Northern Central Southern Karrharde Strand Wiedingharde
West Frisian	Hindeloopen Schiermonnikoog Westlauwers–Terschellings Mainland West Frisian Clay Frisian Wood Frisian Westereendersk Terschelling

Low German

Historical forms	Old Saxon Middle Low German
West Low German	Dutch Low Saxon Stellingwarfs Tweants Gronings Drèents Gelders-Overijssels Achterhooks Sallaans Urkers Veluws Northern Low Saxon East Frisian Low Saxon Eastphalian Westphalian
East Low German	Mecklenburgisch-Vorpommersch Brandenburgisch Central Pomeranian East Pomeranian Low Prussian Plautdietsch / Mennonite Low German

Low Franconian

Historical forms	Frankish Old Dutch Middle Dutch
Standard variants	Dutch Afrikaans (Kaaps)
West Low Franconian	Central Dutch Hollandic Kleverlandish West Flemish French Flemish Zeelandic East Flemish Brabantian Surinamese Dutch Jersey Dutch Mohawk Dutch Stadsfries/Bildts/Amelands/Midslands
East Low Franconian	Limburgish Southeast Limburgish
Cover groups	Meuse-Rhenish

High German

Historical forms

Old High German
Middle High German
New High German
- Early New High German

Standard German

Non-standard variants
and creoles

Central German

West Central German	Central Franconian Ripuarian Colognian Moselle Franconian Luxembourgish Transylvanian Saxon Hunsrückisch Hunsrik Rhine Franconian Lorraine Franconian Palatine Volga German Pennsylvania Dutch Hessian Central Hessian Amana German
East Central German	Thuringian Upper Saxon Erzgebirgisch Lusatian Silesian German High Prussian Wymysorys Halcnovian

Upper German

North and East

North

Historical forms	Proto-Norse Old Norse Old West Norse Old East Norse Old Gutnish
West	Norwegian Bergensk Kebabnorsk Sognamål Trøndersk Valdris Vestlandsk Vikværsk Bokmål (written) Nynorsk (written) Old Norwegian Middle Norwegian Faroese Icelandic Old Icelandic Middle Icelandic Greenlandic Norse Norn
East	Swedish Swedish dialects Danish Danish dialects Insular Danish Jutlandic South Jutlandic East Danish Bornholmsk Scanian Southern Schleswig Danish Gøtudanskt Perkerdansk Old Danish Middle Danish Dalecarlian Elfdalian
Gutnish Mainland Gutnish Fårö Gutnish

East

Philology

Language subgroups	North East West Elbe (Irminonic) Weser-Rhine (Istvaeonic) North Sea (Ingvaeonic) Northwest Gotho-Nordic South
Reconstructed	Proto-Germanic Proto-Germanic grammar Germanic parent language Ancient Belgian language
Diachronic features	Grimm's law Verner's law Holtzmann's law Sievers's law Kluge's law Germanic substrate hypothesis West Germanic gemination High German consonant shift Germanic a-mutation Germanic umlaut Germanic spirant law Ingvaeonic nasal spirant law Great Vowel Shift
Synchronic features	Germanic verb Germanic strong verb Germanic weak verb Preterite-present verb Grammatischer Wechsel Indo-European ablaut

Italics indicate extinct languages
Languages between parentheses are varieties of the language on their left.

v t e Germanic peoples
Ethnolinguistic group of Northern European origin primarily identified as speakers of Germanic languages
History	Nordic Bronze Age Pre-Roman Iron Age Roman Iron Age Germanic Iron Age Viking Age
Early culture	Architecture Art Calendar Clothing Family Festivals Folklore (Proto-Germanic folklore, Anglo-Saxon mythology, Continental Germanic mythology, Norse mythology) Funerary practices Anglo-Saxon Norse Law Anglo-Saxon Norse Literature Anglo-Saxon Norse Names Gothic Numbers Paganism Anglo-Saxon Gothic Norse Rings Scripts Gothic alphabet Runes Symbology Warfare Anglo-Saxon Gothic and Vandal Viking
Languages	Germanic parent language Proto-Germanic language East Germanic languages North Germanic languages West Germanic languages
Groups	Alemanni Brisgavi Bucinobantes Lentienses Raetovari Adrabaecampi Angles Anglo-Saxons Ambrones Ampsivarii Angrivarii Armalausi Auiones Avarpi Baemi Baiuvarii Banochaemae Bastarnae Batavi Belgae Germani cisrhenani Atuatuci Caeroesi Condrusi Eburones Paemani Segni Morini Nervii Bateinoi Betasii Brondings Bructeri Burgundians Buri Cananefates Caritni Casuari Chaedini Chaemae Chamavi Chali Charudes Chasuarii Chattuarii Chatti Chauci Cherusci Cimbri Cobandi Corconti Cugerni Danes Dauciones Dulgubnii Favonae Firaesi Fosi Franks Ripuarian Franks Salian Franks Frisiavones Frisii Gambrivii Geats Gepids Goths Crimean Goths Greuthungi Gutones Ostrogoths Thervingi Thracian Goths Visigoths Gutes Harii Hermunduri Heruli Hilleviones Ingaevones Irminones Istvaeones Jutes Juthungi Lacringi Lemovii Lombards Heaðobards Lugii Diduni Helisii Helveconae Manimi Nahanarvali Marcomanni Marsacii Marsi Mattiaci Nemetes Njars Nuithones Osi Quadi Reudigni Rugii Rugini Saxons Semnones Sicambri Sciri Sitones Suarines Suebi Sunici Swedes Taifals Tencteri Teutons Thelir Thuringii Toxandri Treveri Triboci Tubantes Tulingi Tungri Ubii Usipetes Vagoth Vandals Hasdingi Silingi Vangiones Varisci Victohali Vidivarii Vinoviloth Warini
Christianization	Gothic Christianity Christianization of the Franks Christianisation of Anglo-Saxon England Christianization of Scandinavia Christianization of Iceland
Category

Articles related to the English language

Linguistics

History of English

Phonological history

Vowels	A Changes before historic /l/ Changes before historic /r/ Close back vowels Close front vowels Diphthongs Great Vowel Shift Open back vowels Trisyllabic laxing
Consonants	Clusters Flapping H-dropping L-vocalization Ng Rhoticity T-glottalization Th fronting stopping Wh

Dialects and accents of Modern English by continent

Europe

Great
Britain

England

North	Cheshire Cumbria Barrow Lancashire Liverpool Manchester Northumbria Pitmatic Sunderland Tyneside Teesside Yorkshire
Midlands	East Midlands West Midlands Birmingham Black Country Stoke-on-Trent
South	East Anglia London & Thames Estuary Cockney Multicultural Received Pronunciation West Country Cornwall Dorset

Americas

Midland New England Boston East Maine West New York City accent North Inland North North-Central Philadelphia Baltimore South Appalachia High Tider New Orleans Older Texas West California Pacific Northwest Western Pennsylvania
Social and ethno-cultural	African-American vernacular American Indian Cajun Chicano General American Miami Latino New York Latino Pennsylvania Dutch

Caribbean

Oceania

Australia	variation accent Aboriginal South Torres Strait West
Fiji New Zealand accent Palau Solomon Islands

Africa

Asia

East Asia	Hong Kong

South Asia	Bangladesh India regional and occupational Nepal Pakistan Sri Lanka

Southeast Asia	Brunei Malaysia Myanmar Philippines Singapore

According to contemporary philology

West

Anglo-Frisian

Anglic

English
- dialects
- Old English
- Middle English
- Modern English
  - Early Modern English
Irish Middle English
- Fingallian
- Kildare
- Yola
Scots
- Early Scots
- Middle Scots

Frisian

Historical forms	Old Frisian Middle Frisian
East Frisian	Ems Saterland Frisian Weser Wangerooge Frisian Wursten Frisian
North Frisian	Insular Eiderstedt Föhr–Amrum Föhr Amrum Heligolandic Sylt Mainland Bökingharde Mooring Halligen Goesharde Northern Central Southern Karrharde Strand Wiedingharde
West Frisian	Hindeloopen Schiermonnikoog Westlauwers–Terschellings Mainland West Frisian Clay Frisian Wood Frisian Westereendersk Terschelling

Low German

Historical forms	Old Saxon Middle Low German
West Low German	Dutch Low Saxon Stellingwarfs Tweants Gronings Drèents Gelders-Overijssels Achterhooks Sallaans Urkers Veluws Northern Low Saxon East Frisian Low Saxon Eastphalian Westphalian
East Low German	Mecklenburgisch-Vorpommersch Brandenburgisch Central Pomeranian East Pomeranian Low Prussian Plautdietsch / Mennonite Low German

Low Franconian

Historical forms	Frankish Old Dutch Middle Dutch
Standard variants	Dutch Afrikaans (Kaaps)
West Low Franconian	Central Dutch Hollandic Kleverlandish West Flemish French Flemish Zeelandic East Flemish Brabantian Surinamese Dutch Jersey Dutch Mohawk Dutch Stadsfries/Bildts/Amelands/Midslands
East Low Franconian	Limburgish Southeast Limburgish
Cover groups	Meuse-Rhenish

High German

Historical forms

Old High German
Middle High German
New High German
- Early New High German

Standard German

Non-standard variants
and creoles

Central German

West Central German	Central Franconian Ripuarian Colognian Moselle Franconian Luxembourgish Transylvanian Saxon Hunsrückisch Hunsrik Rhine Franconian Lorraine Franconian Palatine Volga German Pennsylvania Dutch Hessian Central Hessian Amana German
East Central German	Thuringian Upper Saxon Erzgebirgisch Lusatian Silesian German High Prussian Wymysorys Halcnovian

Upper German

North and East

North

Historical forms	Proto-Norse Old Norse Old West Norse Old East Norse Old Gutnish
West	Norwegian Bergensk Kebabnorsk Sognamål Trøndersk Valdris Vestlandsk Vikværsk Bokmål (written) Nynorsk (written) Old Norwegian Middle Norwegian Faroese Icelandic Old Icelandic Middle Icelandic Greenlandic Norse Norn
East	Swedish Swedish dialects Danish Danish dialects Insular Danish Jutlandic South Jutlandic East Danish Bornholmsk Scanian Southern Schleswig Danish Gøtudanskt Perkerdansk Old Danish Middle Danish Dalecarlian Elfdalian
Gutnish Mainland Gutnish Fårö Gutnish

East

Philology

Language subgroups	North East West Elbe (Irminonic) Weser-Rhine (Istvaeonic) North Sea (Ingvaeonic) Northwest Gotho-Nordic South
Reconstructed	Proto-Germanic Proto-Germanic grammar Germanic parent language Ancient Belgian language
Diachronic features	Grimm's law Verner's law Holtzmann's law Sievers's law Kluge's law Germanic substrate hypothesis West Germanic gemination High German consonant shift Germanic a-mutation Germanic umlaut Germanic spirant law Ingvaeonic nasal spirant law Great Vowel Shift
Synchronic features	Germanic verb Germanic strong verb Germanic weak verb Preterite-present verb Grammatischer Wechsel Indo-European ablaut

Italics indicate extinct languages
Languages between parentheses are varieties of the language on their left.

v t e Dictionaries of English
Old and Middle English	An Anglo-Saxon Dictionary Dictionary of Old English Middle English Dictionary
Historic	Catholicon Anglicum (1483) The English Schoole-Master (1596) The New World of English Words (1658) A New English Dictionary (1702) An Universal Etymological English Dictionary (1721) Johnson's A Dictionary of the English Language (1755) Webster's Dictionary (1828) Worcester's Dictionary Richardson's New Dictionary Imperial Dictionary (1847–1850) Century Dictionary (1889–1891) World Book Dictionary Dictionary of American English
British English	Chambers Collins Oxford OED ODE Compact Concise Shorter Penguin
American English	American Heritage American Regional Encarta New Oxford American Random House Webster's Webster's New World Webster's Third New International
Canadian English	Canadian Oxford Dictionary of Canadianisms Dictionary of Newfoundland English Gage Canadian
Australian English	Australian National Australian Oxford Macquarie
Online	Collaborative International Dictionary of English Urban Dictionary Wiktionary Wordnik
Learners / ESL	Cambridge Advanced Learner's Collins COBUILD Advanced Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English Macmillan English Dictionary for Advanced Learners Merriam-Webster's Advanced Learner's Oxford Advanced Learner's

Geopolitical use

English-speaking world

Further links

Articles

Lists

Countries and territories where English is the national language or the native language of the majority
Africa	Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha
Americas	Anguilla Antigua and Barbuda The Bahamas Barbados Belize Bermuda British Virgin Islands Canada Cayman Islands Dominica Falkland Islands Grenada Guyana Jamaica Montserrat Saba Saint Kitts and Nevis Saint Lucia Saint Vincent and the Grenadines Sint Eustatius Sint Maarten South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands Trinidad and Tobago Turks and Caicos Islands United States United States Virgin Islands
Europe	Guernsey Ireland Isle of Man Jersey United Kingdom
Oceania	Australia New Zealand Norfolk Island Pitcairn Islands

Countries and territories where English is an official language, but not the majority first language
Africa	Botswana Cameroon Eswatini The Gambia Ghana Kenya Lesotho Liberia Malawi Mauritius Namibia Nigeria Rwanda Sierra Leone Somaliland South Africa South Sudan Sudan Tanzania Uganda Zambia Zimbabwe
Americas	Puerto Rico
Asia	Christmas Island Cocos (Keeling) Islands Hong Kong India Pakistan Philippines Singapore
Europe	Gibraltar Akrotiri and Dhekelia Malta
Oceania	American Samoa Cook Islands Fiji Guam Kiribati Marshall Islands Micronesia Nauru Niue Northern Mariana Islands Palau Papua New Guinea Samoa Solomon Islands Tokelau Tuvalu Vanuatu

Dependencies shown in italics.

Romance languages (classification)

Major branches

Eastern

Aromanian
Istro-Romanian
Megleno-Romanian
Daco-Romanian
- dialects
- Banat
- Bukovinian
- Crișana
- Maramureș
- Moldavian
- Oltenian
- Transylvanian
- Wallachian
Common Romanian

Italo-
Dalmatian

Central	Central Italian Central Marchigiano Ancona Fabriano Macerata Central−Northern Latian Romanesco Sabino Corsican Gallurese Italian Italo-Australian Maltese Italian Regional Italian Swiss Italian Sassarese Tuscan Florentine
Southern	Extreme Southern Italian Central−Southern Calabrian Salentino Manduriano Sicilian Pantesco Neapolitan–Calabrese Neapolitan Barese Benevento Castelmezzano Cilentan Irpinian Arianese Molisan Southern Latian Tarantino Vastese Northern Calabrian
Others	Dalmatian Romance Dalmatian Istriot Judaeo-Italian

Angevin
Berrichon
Bourbonnais
Burgundian
Champenois
- Ardennais
- Rémois
Frainc-Comtou
Gallo
French
- Jersey Legal
- Meridional
- North American dialects
  - Canadian
    - Acadian
      - Chiac
      - St. Marys Bay French
    - Brayon
    - Newfoundland
    - Quebec
      - Joual
      - Magoua
    - Franco-Ontarian
    - Métis
    - Muskrat
    - New England
  - Frenchville
  - Louisiana
    - Houma
  - Missouri French
- Creoles
Lorrain
- Gaumais
- Vosgien
- Welche
Mayennais
Norman
- Anglo-Norman
  - Auregnais
  - Guernésiais
  - Jèrriais
    - Sercquiais
  - Law French
- Augeron
- Cauchois
- Cotentinais
Orléanais
Paydret
Picard
Poitevin–Saintongeais
- Poitevin
- Saintongeais
Walloon
- West Walloon
- Wisconsin Walloon

Franco-Provençal/Arpitan
Moselle Romance

Ibero-
Romance
(West
Iberian)

Asturleonese	Asturian Western Asturian Cantabrian Leonese Mirandese
Galician–Portuguese	Fala Galician Galician–Asturian/Eonavian Minderico Portugis Portuguese dialects African Asian Brazilian Mineiro European Estremenho Uruguayan Creoles Judaeo-Portuguese
Castilian	Amazonic Spanish Extremaduran Judaeo-Spanish Spanish dialects Equatoguinean Latin American Chilean Chilean Chilote Peruvian Peruvian Ribereño Rioplatense Peninsular Andalusian Llanito Castilian Castrapo Castúo Murcian Philippine Saharan Creoles Old Spanish
Pyrenean–Mozarabic	Andalusi Romance Navarro-Aragonese Aragonese Judaeo-Aragonese
Others	Barranquenho (mixed Portuguese–Spanish) Caló (mixed Romani–Ibero- and Occitano-Romance)

Occitano-
Romance

Catalan
- dialects
- Eastern
  - Algherese
  - Balearic
    - Mallorcan
    - Menorcan
  - Central
  - Northern
- Judaeo-Catalan
- Patuet
- Western
  - Catalan Ribagorçan
  - Valencian
Occitan
- Auvergnat
- Gascon
  - Aranese
  - Béarnese
  - Landese
  - Judeo-Gascon
- Judeo-Provençal
- Languedocien
- Limousin
- Provençal
  - Niçard
- Vivaro-Alpine
  - Gardiol
  - Mentonasc
- Old Occitan
  - Old Catalan

Rhaeto-
Romance

Friulian
- Fornes
Ladin
- Cadorino
- Nones
Romansh
- Jauer
- Putèr
- Surmiran
- Sursilvan
- Vallader

Others

Mediterranean Lingua Franca (Western Romance-based pidgin)
Venetian (unknown further classification)
- Chipilo
- Fiuman
- Talian
- Triestine

Others

Reconstructed

Proto-Romance

Italics indicate extinct languages
Bold indicates languages with more than 5 million speakers
Languages between parentheses are varieties of the language on their left.

Greek language

Origin and genealogy

Periods

Proto-Greek (c. 2900–1600 BC)
Mycenaean Greek (c. 1600–1100 BC)
Ancient Greek (c. 800–300 BC)
Koine Greek (c. 300 BC–AD 330)
Medieval Greek (c. 330–1453)
Modern Greek (since 1453)

Varieties

Ancient	Arcadocypriot Mycenaean Greek Homeric Aeolic Attic and Ionic Doric (Epirote) Macedonian Pamphylian
Koine	Hellenistic Koine Jewish Koine Greek
Modern	Demotic Katharevousa Cappadocian Misthiotika Cretan Cypriot Himariote Constantinople Italiot Greco/Calabrian Griko/Apulian Maniot Mariupolitan Pontic Tsakonian Yevanic Greco-Australian

Phonology

Grammar

Writing systems

Literature

Promotion and study

Other

Indo-Iranian languages

Indo-Aryan languages

Dardic

Kashmiri	Kashmiri Kishtwari
Shina	Shina Brokskat Kundal Shahi Kalkoti Ushoji Palula Sawi
Pashayi	Pashayi
Kunar	Dameli Gawar-Bati Nangalami Shumashti Wotapuri-Katarqalai
Chitral	Kalasha Khowar
Hazara Division	Indus Kohistani Bateri Chilisso Gowro Kalami Tirahi Mankiyali

Northern

Eastern	Doteli Jumli Nepali
Central	Garhwali Kumaoni
Western	Dogri Kangri Bhadarwahi Churahi Bhateali Bilaspuri Chambeali Gaddi Pangwali Mandeali Mahasu Pahari Jaunsari Kullui Pahari Kinnauri Hinduri Sirmauri Sarazi

Northwestern

Punjabi

Eastern	Punjabi dialects Sansi
Lahnda	Hindko Inku Khetrani Pahari-Pothwari Saraiki

Sindhi

Western

Gujarati	Aer Gujarati Jandavra Koli Kachi Parkari Wadiyara Lisan ud-Dawat Parkari Koli Saurashtra Vaghri
Rajasthani	Bagri Goaria Loarki Gujari Dhundari Harauti Malvi Marwari Mewati Mewari Shekhawati Dhatki Od Nimadi
Bhil	Bhili Bhilali Chodri Dhodia-Kukna Dhanki Dubli Bauria Bhilori Mawchi Magari Palya Bareli Pauri Bareli Rathwi Bareli Pardhi Gamit Kalto Vasavi Wagdi Vaagri Booli
Others	Khandeshi Lambadi Dawoodi Domari Romani list of languages

Central

Western	Braj Bhasha Bundeli Haryanvi Hindustani Kauravi Hindi Urdu Deccani Judeo-Urdu Hyderabadi Urdu Rekhta Kannauji Sansi Sadhukkadi
Eastern	Awadhi Bagheli Chhattisgarhi Fiji Hindi
Others	Parya

Eastern

Bihari

Bhojpuric	Bhojpuri Caribbean Hindustani
Magahi	Magahi Khortha
Maithili	Maithili Angika Bajjika
Sadanic	Sadri Kurmali
Tharuic	Tharu Kochila Buksa Majhi Musasa
Others	Kumhali Kuswaric Bote-Darai Danwar

Gauda–
Kamarupa

Bengali	Bengali dialects Bishnupriya Manipuri Hajong Kharia Thar Kurmukar Mal Paharia Noakhailla Sylheti Tanchangya
Kamarupic	Assamese Kamrupi Goalpariya Rajbanshi (Nepal) Rangpuri Surjapuri
Chittagonian	Chittagonian Chakma Rohingya

Odia

Halbic

Southern

Marathi–
Konkani

Marathic	Marathi Varhadi Andh Berar Deccan Varli Phudagi Katkari Kadodi
Konkanic	Konkani Maharashtrian Konkani Canarese Konkani

Insular

Old

Middle

Early	Ashokan Prakrit Pāli Early Ardhamagadhi
Middle (Prakrit)	Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit Dramatic Prakrits Ardhamagadhi Magadhi Maharashtri Shauraseni Gāndhārī Paishachi
Late (Apabhraṃśa)	Abahattha Apabhraṃśa Elu Kamarupi Khasa Prakrit

Proto-
languages

Unclassified

Pidgins
and creoles

See also: Indo-Iranian languages; Nuristani languages; Iranian languages

Iranian languages

History

Eastern

Pamir	Bartangi Ishkashimi Khufi Munji Roshani Sanglechi Sarikoli Shughni Vanji Wakhi Yazghulami Yidgha
Others	Avestan Bactrian Khwarezmian Parachi Pashto Central Northern Southern Wanetsi Ormuri Scythian Alanian Ossetian Digor Iron Jassic Saka Sogdian Yaghnobi

Western

North	Ashtiani Balochi Daylami Fars Gilaki Gorani Kurdish Kurmanji Sorani Xwarin Kordali Laki Mazanderani Tabaroid Median Old Azeri Parthian Semnani Lasgerdi Sangsari Sorkhei Taleshi Tati Tatoid Zaza Zoroastrian Dari
South	Achomi Bashkardi Garmsiri Kuhmareyi Kumzari Luri Bakhtiari Persian Caucasian Tat Dari Hazaragi Tajik Old Persian Middle Persian

Italics indicate extinct or historical languages.
Languages between parentheses are varieties of the language on their left.

Celtic languages

Reconstructed

Proto-Celtic

Continental Celtic

Galatian
Gaulish
- Cisalpine Gaulish
Hispano-Celtic
- Celtiberian
- Gallaecian
Lepontic
Noric

Insular Celtic

Brittonic
(Brythonic)

Reconstructed	Common Brittonic
Southwestern Brittonic	Breton Cornish
Western Brittonic	Cumbric Welsh Old Welsh Middle Welsh
Pictish	Pictish

Goidelic

Classical Gaelic
Irish
- Primitive Irish
- Old Irish
- Middle Irish
- Early Modern Irish/Classical Gaelic
Manx
Scottish Gaelic
- Galwegian Gaelic

Unknown

Ancient Belgian? (possibly hypothetical)
Camunic? (possibly related to Rhaetic or pre-Indo-European)
Ligurian? (possibly independent or pre-Indo-European)
Lusitanian? (possibly Italic)
Rhaetic? (possibly Tyrsenian)
Tartessian? (possibly Paleo-Hispanic)

Mixed

Celtic-speaking areas

Lower Brittany (Brittany)
Y Wladfa (Chubut Province, Argentina; Welsh)
Gaeltacht (Ireland)
Cape Breton Island (Nova Scotia; Scottish Gaelic)
Gàidhealtachd (Scotland)
Y Fro Gymraeg (Wales)

Immersive education

Italics indicate extinct or ancestor languages

v t e Armenian language
Origin	Armenian hypothesis Graeco-Armenian Armeno-Aryan
History	Proto-Armenian Classical Armenian (c. 405–1100) Middle Armenian (c. 1100–1700) Modern Armenian (from c. 1700)
Alphabet	Orthography Classical Reformed Braille Romanization Numerals
Grammar	Verb table Eastern Western
Dialects	Standardized Western Eastern Regional dialects Homshetsi Iranian Armenian Karabakh Karin Mush Yerevan
Literature	List of writers
Promotion and study	Armenian National Academy of Sciences Armenian studies
Related topics	Proverbs
Category

v t e Baltic languages
Reconstructed	Proto-Balto-Slavic Proto-Baltic
West Baltic	West Galindian Old Prussian Sudovian Skalvian (possibly separate West Baltic)
East Baltic	Curonian? Latvian Kursenieki Latgalian* Lithuanian Aukštaitian Samogitian* Selonian Semigallian
Dnieper Baltic	East Galindian
Italics indicate extinct languages · Languages between parentheses are varieties of the language on their left · Asterisk (*) indicates dialects occasionally classified as languages · Question mark (?) indicates disputed classification.

Eastern	Bulgarian Church Slavonic Macedonian
Transitional	Torlakian
Western^[ru]	Alpine Slavic Serbo-Croatian Bosnian Croatian Montenegrin Serbian Slovene

West Slavic

Czech–Slovak	Czech Biblical Czech Czechoslovak Knaanic Moravian Slovak Camaldolese Slovak Eastern Slovak Pannonian Rusyn
Lechitic	East Lechitic Silesian Polish dialects Old Polish Middle Polish Pomeranian/Middle Lechitic Kashubian Slovincian West Lechitic Marcho-Magdeburgian Mecklenburgian Rani Polabian
Sorbian	Upper Sorbian Lower Sorbian Schleifer

Microlanguages
and dialects

East Slavic	Carpathian Rusyn Lemko Podlachian West Polesian
South Slavic	Banat Bulgarian Chakavian Burgenland Croatian Kajkavian Pomak Prekmurje Slovene Resian Shtokavian Slavomolisano Bunjevac Slavic dialects of Greece
West Slavic	Eastern Slovak Lach Masurian Pannonian Rusyn Podhale Silesian Cieszyn Silesian

Mixed languages

Constructed
languages

Historical
phonology

Italics indicate extinct languages.

v t e Philosophy of language
Index of language articles
Philosophers	Confucius Gorgias Cratylus Plato Aristotle Eubulides Diodorus Chrysippus Zhuangzi Xunzi Averroes Ibn Khaldun Hobbes Leibniz Herder von Humboldt Mauthner Ricœur de Saussure Frege Boas Tillich Sapir Bloomfield Bergson Vygotsky Wittgenstein Russell Carnap Derrida Whorf Austin Chomsky Gadamer Kripke Ayer Anscombe Hintikka Dummett Davidson Grice Ryle Strawson Quine Putnam Lewis Searle Watzlawick
Theories	Causal theory of reference Contrast theory of meaning Contrastivism Conventionalism Cratylism Deconstruction Descriptivism Direct reference theory Dramatism Dynamic semantics Expressivism Inquisitive semantics Linguistic determinism Mediated reference theory Nominalism Non-cognitivism Phallogocentrism Relevance theory Semantic externalism Semantic holism Situation semantics Structuralism Supposition theory Symbiosism Theological noncognitivism Theory of descriptions (Definite description) Theory of language Unilalianism Verification theory
Concepts	Ambiguity Cant Linguistic relativity Language Truth-bearer Proposition Use–mention distinction Concept Categories Set Class Family resemblance Intension Logical form Metalanguage Mental representation Modality (natural language) Presupposition Principle of compositionality Property Sign Sense and reference Speech act Symbol Sentence Statement more...
Works	Cratylus (n.d.) Port-Royal Grammar (1660) De Arte Combinatoria (1666) An Essay Towards a Real Character, and a Philosophical Language (1668) Alciphron (1732) "On Denoting" (1905) Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus (1921) Language, Truth, and Logic (1936) Two Dogmas of Empiricism (1951) Philosophical Investigations (1953) Of Grammatology (1967) Naming and Necessity (1980) Wittgenstein on Rules and Private Language (1982) Limited Inc (1988)
Related articles	Analytic philosophy Philosophy of information Philosophical logic Linguistics Pragmatics Rhetoric Scholasticism School of Names Semantics Formal semantics Semiotics
Category Task Force Discussion

Lexical categories and their features

Noun

Verb

Forms

Types

Other

v t e Lexicology
Major terms	Lexical item Lexicon Lexis Word
Elements	Chereme Glyphs Grapheme Lemma Lexeme Morpheme Phoneme Seme Sememe
Semantic relations	Antonymy Hypernymy and hyponymy Meronymy and holonymy Idiom Lexical semantics Semantic network Synonym Troponymy
Functions	Function word Headword
Fields	Controlled vocabulary English lexicology and lexicography International scientific vocabulary Lexicographic error Lexicographic information cost Linguistic prescription Morphology Specialized lexicography
Linguistics portal

v t e Lexicography
Types of reference works	Dictionary Glossary Lexicon Phrase book Thesaurus
Types of dictionaries	Advanced learner's Anagram Bilingual Biographical Conceptual Defining vocabulary Electronic Encyclopedic Etymological Explanatory Historical Idiom Language-for-specific-purposes Machine-readable Medical Monolingual learner's Multi-field Picture Reverse Rhyming Rime Single-field Specialized Spelling dictionary Sub-field Visual
Other	International scientific vocabulary List of lexicographers List of online dictionaries
Linguistics portal

User:Jshflynn/Language

The State[edit]

Indo-European[edit]

Germanic[edit]

English[edit]

Romance[edit]

Hellenic (Greek)[edit]

Indo-Iranian[edit]

Celtic[edit]

Armenian[edit]

Balto-Slavic (Baltic)[edit]

Balto-Slavic (Slavic)[edit]

Albanian[edit]

The Structure[edit]