User:J.Choi, Future UCSF Pharm.D./Kwashiorkor

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Kwashiorkor (“kwah-shee-awr-kawr” or “-ker”, IPA: /kwɑːʃiˈɔːrkɔːr/, /kwɑːʃiˈɔːrkər/)[1] is form of severe protein malnutrition characterized by edema and an enlarged liver with fatty infiltrates.[2] It is thought to be caused by sufficient calorie intake, but with insufficient protein consumption (or good-quality protein), which distinguishes it from marasmus. Recent studies have found that antioxidant micronutrients, such as Vitamin C, β-carotene, lycopene, and carotenoids may play a role in the development of Kwashiorkor.[3] Kwashiorkor cases occur primarily in areas of famine or poor food supply;[4] cases in the developed world are rare.[5] It occurs in children more than 1 year of age. Usually children of age around 5 years are affected by it.[6]

Jamaican pediatrician Cicely Williams introduced the term in 1935, two years after she published the disease's first formal description.[7][8] The name is derived from the Ga language of coastal Ghana, translated as "the sickness the baby gets when the new baby comes" or "the disease of the deposed child",[9] and reflecting the development of the condition in an older child who has been weaned from the breast when a younger sibling comes.[10] Breast milk contains amino acids vital to a child's growth. In at-risk populations, kwashiorkor may develop after a mother weans her child from breast milk, replacing it with a diet high in carbohydrates, such as maize, cassava or rice based diets.[7][3]

Classification[edit]

....(Jeremy) Types of malnutrition:

Kwashiorkor: insufficient protein consumption

Marasmus: energy deficiency

Marasmic kwashiorkor: deficiency of both calories and proteins[3] (Jeremy).....

Although they are both different types of severe acute malnutrition, there was greater consumption of antioxidants, vitamins, and minerals seen in those with kwashiorkor compared to those with marasmus. [11]

Signs and symptoms[edit]

The defining sign of kwashiorkor in a malnourished child is pitting edema (particularly swelling of the hands and feet). Unlike marasmus, where the liver and other essential organs are reduced in size, kwashiorkor is characterized by "an enlarged fatty liver, fibrosis, and dysfunction of several organs (such as pancreatic, renal, and mental functions).[3] (swelling of the ankles and feet). Other clinical characteristics observed signs include a distended abdomen, an enlarged liver with fatty infiltrates, thinning of hair, loss of teeth, variable skin or hair dyspigmentation,depigmentation, and dermatitis. Children with kwashiorkor often develop irritability and anorexia. Generally, the disease can be treated by adding protein to the diet; however, it can have a long-term impact on a child's physical and mental development, and in severe cases may lead to death.

In dry climates, marasmus is the more frequent disease associated with malnutrition. Another malnutrition syndrome includes cachexia, although it is often caused by underlying illnesses. These are important considerations in the treatment of the patients.

Causes[edit]

The precise etiology of kwashiorkor remains unclear.[12][13][14][15][16] Several hypotheses have been proposed that are associated with and explain some, but not all aspects of the pathophysiology of kwashiorkor. They include, but are not limited to protein deficiency causing hypoalbuminemia, amino acid deficiency, oxidative stress, and gut microbiome changes.[12][16][17]

Low protein intake[edit]

Disability-adjusted life years per 100,000 inhabitants for protein–energy malnutrition in 2002.[18]
  no data
  fewer than 10
  10–100
  100–200
  200–300
  300–400
  400–500
  500–600
  600–700
  700–800
  800–1000
  1000–1350
  more than 1350

Kwashiorkor is a severe form of malnutrition associated with a deficiency in dietary protein.[13] The extreme lack of protein causes an osmotic imbalance in the gastro-intestinal system causing swelling of the gut diagnosed as an edema or retention of water.[8]

Extreme fluid retention observed in individuals suffering from kwashiorkor is a direct result of irregularities in the lymphatic system and an indication of capillary exchange. The lymphatic system serves three major purposes: fluid recovery, immunity, and lipid absorption. Victims of kwashiorkor commonly exhibit reduced ability to recover fluids, immune system failure, and low lipid absorption, all of which result from a state of severe undernourishment. Fluid recovery in the lymphatic system is accomplished by re-absorption of water and proteins which are then returned to the blood. Compromised fluid recovery results in the characteristic belly distension observed in highly malnourished children.[19]

Capillary exchange between the lymphatic system and the bloodstream is stunted due to the inability of the body to effectively overcome the hydrostatic pressure gradient. Proteins, mainly albumin, are responsible for creating the colloid osmotic pressure (COP) observed in the blood and tissue fluids. The difference in the COP of the blood and tissue is called the oncotic pressure. The oncotic pressure is in direct opposition with the hydrostatic pressure and tends to draw water back into the capillary by osmosis. However, due to the lack of proteins, no substantial pressure gradient can be established to draw fluids from the tissue back into the blood stream. This results in the pooling of fluids, causing the swelling and distention of the abdomen.[20]

The low protein intake leads to some specific signs: edema of the hands and feet, irritability, anorexia, a desquamative rash, hair discolouration, and a large fatty liver. The typical swollen abdomen is due to two causes: ascites because of hypoalbuminemia (low oncotic pressure), and enlarged fatty liver.[21]

Ignorance of nutrition can be a cause. A case was described where parents who fed their child cassava failed to recognize malnutrition because of the edema caused by the syndrome and believed the child was well-nourished despite the lack of dietary protein.[22]

Protein should be supplied only for anabolic purposes. The catabolic needs should be satisfied with carbohydrate and fat. Protein catabolism involves the urea cycle, which is located in the liver and can easily overwhelm the capacity of an already damaged organ. The resulting liver failure can be fatal. This means in patients suffering from kwashiorkor, protein must be introduced back into the diet gradually. Clinical solutions include weaning the affected with milk products and increasing the intake of proteinaceous material progressively to daily recommended amounts.[23]

Mechanisms[edit]

.......(Jeremy)

Peripheral edema and hypoalbuminemia[edit]

Kwashiorkor is a form of protein deficiency, which can result in both osmotic imbalances and irregularities in the lymphatic system[3].

Kwashiorkor is most notable for peripheral edema. The presence of edema in kwashiorkor is correlated with very low albumin concentration or hypoalbuminemia. Edema results from a loss of fluid balance between the hydrostatic and oncotic pressures across the capillary blood vessel walls[24]. Lack of protein results in lack of pressure gradient, and affects the body's ability to draw fluid from the tissues into the bloodstream. Low albumin concentration influences negatively the strength of oncotic pressure. Failure leads to the fluid buildup in the abdomen, resulting in edema and belly distension[3]. The low albumin concentration especially among children with Kwashiorkor became intravascularly depleted. Furthermore, the release of antidiuretic hormone is stimulated by hypovolemia, also leading to the development of peripheral edema. Plasma renin is also stimulated promoting sodium retention.


It is important to distinguish the pathophysiology of marasmus and kwashiorkor when it comes to treating malnourished children who may have hypovolemic shock that is cause by an acute loss of salt and water[2].

Children with severe albumin deficiency will struggle physiologically to maintain their blood volume by driving hormonal pathways[2].

Low gluthaione levels[edit]

Kwashiorkor is also marked by low gluthaione levels. It is believed it relates to high oxidant levels commonly seen in people who suffer from starvation and rarely in chronic inflammation.

Others[edit]

A proposed experimental theory suggests that alterations in the microbiome/virone contributes to edematous malnutrition, but further studies are required to understand the mechanism.[25] (Jeremy).....

Diagnosis[edit]

Kwashiorkor, like many other malnutrition diseases, is indirectly assessed using anthropometry. [26] Kwashiorkor is a subtype of severe acute malnutrition (SAM) characterized by bilateral peripheral pitting edema, low mid-upper arm circumference (MUAC < 115 mm), and a low weight-for-height Z-score (WHZ, Z < -3).[27][28][13] Additional clinical findings on physical exam include marked muscle atrophy, abdominal distension, dermatitis, and hepatomegaly.[13][29] Kwashiorkor is distinguished from marasmus by the presence of edema.

WHO criteria for clinical assessment of malnutrition are based on the degree of wasting (MUAC), stunting (weight-for-height Z-score), and the presence of edema (mild to severe).[30]

Prevention or Screening[edit]

...(Jeremy) A diet rich in carbohydrates, fats that make up 10% of the total caloric needs, and proteins that make up 15% of the caloric needs can prevent kwashiorkor.

Proteins can be found in the following foods

  • Seafood
  • Peas
  • Nuts
  • Seeds
  • Eggs
  • Lean meat
  • Beans[3] (Jeremy)...

Because it can be difficult to measure weight-for-height Z scores (WHZ) frequently, screening is performed using mid-upper arm circumference (MUAC) < 115 mm. [31] To properly screen for severe malnutrition in children, MUAC measurements should be done every month to reduce the risk of complications. [31] Additionally, getting a better sense of what they eat, how often they eat, and any issues they may have with eating, may give more insight on their nutrition and what changes may need to be made to improve it. [32]

As for the prevention of childhood malnutrition, there needs to be public health changes such as improving agriculture and improving access to healthcare to effectively reduce the rates of malnutrition in children. By educating teenage girls and young women on proper nutrition and health during and after pregnancy, they can provide their children with the appropriate nutrients from a young age. By ensuring pregnant women are equipped with the proper education and resources, mothers and infants are in better health, ultimately preventing childhood malnutrition. [31]

Because edema can hide decreased muscle mass, it can be hard to diagnose kwashiorkor in young children; however, if cases are overlooked, children become more susceptible to infections and can ultimately lead to morbidity and mortality.[33] To prevent this from happening, parents can be educated on proper nutrition and the importance of breastfeeding infants to ensure they receive all the nutrients they need.[33]

Treatment[edit]

WHO guidelines outline 10 general principles for the inpatient management of severely malnourished children.[30][34]

  1. Treat/prevent hypoglycemia
  2. Treat/prevent hypothermia
  3. Treat/prevent dehydration
  4. Correct electrolyte imbalance
  5. Treat/prevent infection
  6. Correct micronutrient deficiencies
  7. Start cautious feeding
  8. Achieve catch-up growth
  9. Provide sensory stimulation and emotional support
  10. Prepare for follow-up after recovery

Both clinical subtypes of severe acute malnutrition (kwashiorkor and marasmus) are treated similarly.[16][30]

The cause, type, and severity of malnutrition determines what type of treatment would be most appropriate. [32] For primary acute malnutrition, children with no complications are treated at home and are encouraged to either continue breastfeeding (for infants) or start using ready-to-use therapeutic foods (for children). [32] For secondary acute malnutrition, the underlying cause needs to be identified to appropriately treat children. Only after the primary disease is determined can an appropriate dietary plan be made, as fluid, vitamins, and macronutrients may need to be considered to not exacerbate the cause of the malnutrition. [32]

Ready-to-use therapeutic foods (RUTFs) and F-75 and F-100 milks were created to provide appropriate nutrition and caloric intake to those experiencing malnutrition. F-75 milk would be ideal when trying to reintroduce food into a malnourished person, and F-100 milk would be used to aid in weight gain. While RUTFs and F-100 milk were made to have the same nutritional value, RUTFs are beneficial as they are dehydrated and don't require much preparation. [31]

Outcomes or Prognosis[edit]

Kwashiorkor is associated with a high risk of mortality and complications. Treatment has proven to reduce this mortality risk and children tend to recover faster than children with other severe malnutrition disease. However, physical and intellectual capabilities are not fully restored. Growth stunting and chronic disruption of microbiota are commonly observed after recovery.[35]

A high risk of death is identified by a brachial perimeter < 11 cm or by a weight-for-age threshold < −3 z-scores below the median of the WHO child growth standards. In practice, malnourished children with edema are suffering from potentially life-threatening severe malnutrition.[36]

Epidemiology[edit]

Kwashiorkor is rare in developed nations. It is mostly observed in Southeast Asia, Central America, Congo, Puerto Rico, Jamaica, South Africa, and Uganda, where poverty is prominent.[3] Cases of severe malnutrition also tend to trend higher under conditions of food insecurity, higher prevalence of infectious diseases, and poor living situation with inadequate sanitation. [26] Communities experiencing famine are affected the most especially during the rainy season. Prevalence varies, but it affects children of either sex commonly under five years old.[3][37]

When compared to marasmus in developing countries, kwashiorkor has a lower prevalence, "0.2%-1.6% for kwashiorkor and 1.2%-6.8% for marasmus."[3] Factors such as "diet, geographical locations, climate and aflatoxin exposure" are associated with the difference in prevalence for kwashiorkor and marasmus.[3]

History[edit]

The World Health Organization officially recognized Kwashiorkor as a public health crisis in the 1950s. [2] Despite Kwashiorkor initially being described and introduced by Jamaican pediatrician Cicely Williams in 1933[7], there was a delay in the recognition of the disease. This delay was because most reported cases of childhood deaths at the time were classified as being due to diseases of the gastrointestinal system or of infectious nature. [2] During that time, it was been found that children who were presenting with digestive system diseases and symptoms of infections were also exhibiting classic symptoms of Kwashiorkor. Kwashiorkor has since been concluded to be a secondary cause of death. [2]

Effects on PK[edit]

Those experiencing poverty-related infectious diseases (PRDs) such as malaria and tuberculosis are also likely to be malnourished. [38] Malnutrition can affect the pharmacokinetics of various drugs used to treat PRDs by changing a drug's bioavailability, distribution, and elimination. [38] To optimize treatment of those diseases, there needs to be more research into how severe malnutrition, specifically kwashiorkor, can affect treatment response. [38]

Society and Culture[edit]

T

Research Directions[edit]

Current research and recommendations to manage severe acute malnutrition (SAM), such as kwashiorkor, in children are based on expert opinions. Further studies are needed in order to "improve treatment outcomes in a large number of children with SAM.[39]

Special Populations[edit]

T

Other Animals[edit]

T

See also[edit][edit]

References[edit]

  1. ^ "Definition of kwashiorkor | Dictionary.com". www.dictionary.com. Retrieved 2021-04-15.
  2. ^ a b c d e f Benjamin O, Lappin SL (2020), "Kwashiorkor", StatPearls, Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing, PMID 29939653, retrieved 2020-07-27 Cite error: The named reference ":5" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  3. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k "Difference between kwashiorkor and marasmus: Comparative meta-analysis of pathogenic characteristics and implications for treatment". Microbial Pathogenesis. 150: 104702. 2021. doi:10.1016/j.micpath.2020.104702. ISSN 0882-4010. Cite error: The named reference ":4" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  4. ^ Krebs NF, Primak LE, Hambridge KM. Normal childhood nutrition & its disorders. In: Current Pediatric Diagnosis & Treatment. McGraw-Hill.
  5. ^ Liu T, Howard RM, Mancini AJ, Weston WL, Paller AS, Drolet BA, et al. (May 2001). "Kwashiorkor in the United States: fad diets, perceived and true milk allergy, and nutritional ignorance". Archives of Dermatology. 137 (5): 630–6. PMID 11346341.[permanent dead link]
  6. ^ Benjamin, Onecia; Lappin, Sarah L. (2021), "Kwashiorkor", StatPearls, Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing, PMID 29939653, retrieved 2021-06-12
  7. ^ a b c Williams CD (July 1983) [1933]. "Fifty years ago. Archives of Diseases in Childhood 1933. A nutritional disease of childhood associated with a maize diet". Archives of Disease in Childhood. 58 (7): 550–60. doi:10.1136/adc.58.7.550. PMC 1628206. PMID 6347092.
  8. ^ a b Williams CD, Oxon BM, Lond H (1935). "Kwashiorkor: a nutritional disease of children associated with a maize diet. 1935". Bulletin of the World Health Organization. 81 (12): 912–3. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(00)94666-X. PMC 2572388. PMID 14997245. Reprint: Williams CD, Oxon BM, Lond H (2003). "Kwashiorkor: a nutritional disease of children associated with a maize diet. 1935". Bulletin of the World Health Organization. 81 (12): 912–3. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(00)94666-X. PMC 2572388. PMID 14997245.
  9. ^ Stanton J (2001). "Listening to the Ga: Cicely Williams' discovery of kwashiorkor on the Gold Coast". Clio Medica. 61: 149–71. doi:10.1163/9789004333390_008. ISBN 9789004333390. PMID 11603151.
  10. ^ "Merriam Webster Dictionary". Retrieved 2009-04-05.
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  12. ^ a b Briend A (2014). "Kwashiorkor: still an enigma – the search must go on" (PDF). Emergency Nutrition Network. Retrieved 2019-08-02.
  13. ^ a b c d Benjamin O, Lappin SL (2019). "Kwashiorkor". StatPearls. StatPearls Publishing. PMID 29939653. Retrieved 2019-08-01.
  14. ^ Coulthard MG (May 2015). "Oedema in kwashiorkor is caused by hypoalbuminaemia". Paediatrics and International Child Health. 35 (2): 83–9. doi:10.1179/2046905514Y.0000000154. PMC 4462841. PMID 25223408.
  15. ^ Pham TP, Tidjani Alou M, Bachar D, Levasseur A, Brah S, Alhousseini D, et al. (June 2019). "Gut Microbiota Alteration is Characterized by a Proteobacteria and Fusobacteria Bloom in Kwashiorkor and a Bacteroidetes Paucity in Marasmus". Scientific Reports. 9 (1): 9084. Bibcode:2019NatSR...9.9084P. doi:10.1038/s41598-019-45611-3. PMC 6591176. PMID 31235833.
  16. ^ a b c Smith MI, Yatsunenko T, Manary MJ, Trehan I, Mkakosya R, Cheng J, et al. (February 2013). "Gut microbiomes of Malawian twin pairs discordant for kwashiorkor". Science. 339 (6119): 548–54. Bibcode:2013Sci...339..548S. doi:10.1126/science.1229000. PMC 3667500. PMID 23363771.
  17. ^ Velly H, Britton RA, Preidis GA (March 2017). "Mechanisms of cross-talk between the diet, the intestinal microbiome, and the undernourished host". Gut Microbes. 8 (2): 98–112. doi:10.1080/19490976.2016.1267888. PMC 5390823. PMID 27918230.
  18. ^ "Mortality and Burden of Disease Estimates for WHO Member States in 2002" (xls). World Health Organization. 2002.
  19. ^ "Nova et Vetera". The British Medical Journal. 2 (4673): 284. 1950. doi:10.1136/bmj.2.4673.267.
  20. ^ Saladin K (2012). Anatomy and Physiology (6th ed.). New York: McGraw Hill. pp. 766–767, 809–811. ISBN 978-0-07-337825-1.
  21. ^ Tierney EP, Sage RJ, Shwayder T (May 2010). "Kwashiorkor from a severe dietary restriction in an 8-month infant in suburban Detroit, Michigan: case report and review of the literature". International Journal of Dermatology. 49 (5): 500–6. doi:10.1111/j.1365-4632.2010.04253.x. PMID 20534082.
  22. ^ "Malnutrition in Third World Countries". www.religion-online.org. Archived from the original on 2015-09-19. Retrieved 2017-03-02.
  23. ^ https://www.embibe.com/study/examples-on-kwashiorkar-concept
  24. ^ Benjamin, Onecia; Lappin, Sarah L. (2021), "Kwashiorkor", StatPearls, Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing, PMID 29939653, retrieved 2021-07-27
  25. ^ Benjamin, Onecia; Lappin, Sarah L. (2021), "Kwashiorkor", StatPearls, Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing, PMID 29939653, retrieved 2021-07-27
  26. ^ a b Bhutta, Zulfiqar A.; Berkley, James A.; Bandsma, Robert H. J.; Kerac, Marko; Trehan, Indi; Briend, André (2017). "Severe childhood malnutrition". Nature reviews. Disease primers. 3: 17067. doi:10.1038/nrdp.2017.67. ISSN 2056-676X. PMC 7004825. PMID 28933421.
  27. ^ "UpToDate". www.uptodate.com. Retrieved 2019-08-01.
  28. ^ Roberfroid D, Hammami N, Mehta P, Lachat C, Verstraeten R, Weise Prinzo Z, Huybregts L, Kolsteren P. "Management of oedematous malnutrition in infants and children aged >6 months: a systematic review of the evidence" (PDF).
  29. ^ Heilskov S, Rytter MJ, Vestergaard C, Briend A, Babirekere E, Deleuran MS (August 2014). "Dermatosis in children with oedematous malnutrition (Kwashiorkor): a review of the literature". Journal of the European Academy of Dermatology and Venereology. 28 (8): 995–1001. doi:10.1111/jdv.12452. PMID 24661336.
  30. ^ a b c "Updates on the Management of Severe Acute Malnutrition in Infants and Children" (PDF). WHO. 2013.
  31. ^ a b c d Bhutta, Zulfiqar A.; Berkley, James A.; Bandsma, Robert H. J.; Kerac, Marko; Trehan, Indi; Briend, André (2017). "Severe childhood malnutrition". Nature reviews. Disease primers. 3: 17067. doi:10.1038/nrdp.2017.67. ISSN 2056-676X. PMC 7004825. PMID 28933421.
  32. ^ a b c d Dipasquale, Valeria; Cucinotta, Ugo; Romano, Claudio (2020). "Acute Malnutrition in Children: Pathophysiology, Clinical Effects and Treatment". Nutrients. 12 (8). doi:10.3390/nu12082413. ISSN 2072-6643. PMC 7469063. PMID 32806622.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  33. ^ a b Kamaruzaman, NA; Jamani, NA; Said, AH (2020). "An infant with kwashiorkor: The forgotten disease". Malaysian Family Physician : the Official Journal of the Academy of Family Physicians of Malaysia. 15 (2): 46–49. ISSN 1985-207X. PMC 7430309. PMID 32843945.
  34. ^ Ashworth A (2003). "Guidelines for the inpatient treatment of severely malnourished children" (PDF). WHO.
  35. ^ "Difference between kwashiorkor and marasmus: Comparative meta-analysis of pathogenic characteristics and implications for treatment". Microbial Pathogenesis. 150: 104702. 2021. doi:10.1016/j.micpath.2020.104702. ISSN 0882-4010.
  36. ^ "Management of moderate malnutrition in under-5 children by the health sector" (PDF).{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  37. ^ Odigwe, Chibuzo C; Smedslund, Geir; Ejemot-Nwadiaro, Regina I; Anyanechi, Chiedozie C; Krawinkel, Michael B (2010). "Supplementary vitamin E, selenium, cysteine and riboflavin for preventing kwashiorkor in preschool children in developing countries". Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. doi:10.1002/14651858.cd008147.pub2. ISSN 1465-1858. PMC 6599860. PMID 20393967.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: PMC format (link)
  38. ^ a b c Verrest, Luka; Wilthagen, Erica A.; Beijnen, Jos H.; Huitema, Alwin D. R.; Dorlo, Thomas P. C. (2021). "Influence of Malnutrition on the Pharmacokinetics of Drugs Used in the Treatment of Poverty-Related Diseases: A Systematic Review". Clinical Pharmacokinetics. doi:10.1007/s40262-021-01031-z. ISSN 0312-5963.
  39. ^ Kulkarni, Bharati; Mamidi, Raja Sriswan (2019). "Nutrition rehabilitation of children with severe acute malnutrition: Revisiting studies undertaken by the National Institute of Nutrition". The Indian Journal of Medical Research. 150 (2): 139–152. doi:10.4103/ijmr.IJMR_1905_18. ISSN 0971-5916. PMC 6829782. PMID 31670269.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
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