User:Elonka/Mongol historians

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Was there a Franco-Mongol alliance? Or the hope of an alliance? What did the historians say?

Overview

The question is, "What do historians say about whether or not there was an alliance between the Crusaders and the Mongols?"

My (Elonka's) interpretation is that:

• The clear consensus among modern historians is that there were many attempts to put together an alliance, but that the attempts failed.
• Some older historians (such as Rene Grousset) spent time in their books arguing that an alliance would have been a good idea, and was a "missed opportunity" for the Crusaders
• Modern historians are generally acknowledging Grousset's interpretation, but the main dispute is not whether or an alliance occurred, but, "Would an alliance have been a good idea or not?"
• At least one modern historian, Jean Richard, argues that the alliance actually existed; however, most other more recent historians (Jackson, Morgan, Atwood) are clear that the alliance did not occur.

Historian quickref

See also: User:Elonka/Mongol quickref

- for a quick overview (2-3 paragraphs) of the historical context of this dispute

Historian	Opinion	Year	Type of analysis (in-depth, pop culture, etc.)
Barber, Malcolm	alliance seen as "possible" but was not realized	2001	Minor mentions in a larger book about the Templars
Maalouf, Amin	alliance was a "cherished dream" that didn't occur	1984	Pop culture book about Arab historians
Newman, Sharan	no strong mention	2006	Templar historian
Schein, Sylvia	said an alliance was "planned" but didn't come together	1989	Mongol scholar - major
Martin, Sean	no strong mention	2005	Templar pop culture book
Tyerman, Christopher	hoped-for alliance never occurred	2006	Crusades historian - major
Nicolle, David	Mongols were regarded as "potential allies" but not that the alliance occurred	1990	Mongol historian
Grousset, Rene	argued that an alliance would have been a good idea, and was a "missed opportunity"	1930s	Crusades historian - major
Demurger, Alain	called the alliance a "strategy" that never came to clear fruition	2002	Templar scholar
Riley-Smith, Jonathan	said forces were "ready" to ally, but not that it occurred	2002	Crusades historian
Stewart, Angus Donal	Said the alliance was promoted, but not that it occurred	2001	Cilicia Armenian scholar
Encyclopedia Britannica	called the alliance a "chimera" or fantasy	20th century	encyclopedia
Richard, Jean	said the alliance occurred, but was a "lost opportunity"	1999	Crusades - Respected historian on the Crusades and the Mongols
Morgan, David	said there were attempts at an alliance, but that it did not occur	2006	Well-known scholar of the Mongols
Oldenbourg	timeline mention that an alliance occurred in 1280	1966	Passing mention in a book about a different time period
Runciman, Steven	said the alliance was a "hope" but ultimately a waste of time	1951	Noted English scholar of the Crusades
Jackson, Peter	no alliance occurred	2006	Well-known scholar of the Mongols
Prawer, Joshua	attempts that failed	1972	Crusades historian
Prawdin, Michael	attempts that failed	1961	Mongol historian
Lebedel, Claude	no alliance	2004	French Crusades historian
Clough/Garsoian	possible allies, but didn't come together	1964	Textbook of Western Civ
Sinor, Denis	possible, but didn't happen	1999	Mongol historian
Turnbull, Steven	possible, but didn't happen	1980	Mongol historian
Burger, Glenn	alliance refused	1988	Armenian historian
Phillips, J.R.	said the Pope made no commitment to an alliance	1988	historian of medieval Europe
Cahen, Claude	said an alliance was sought but did not occur	1970	Mongol historian
Nersessian, Sirarpie Der	alliance did not occur	1969	Historian of Cilician Armenia
Atwood	alliance was not achieved	2004	Wrote encyclopedia about Mongol Empire
Edbury, Peter	attempted ineffectually to join forces	2000	Article in major work: New Cambridge Medieval History
Mantran, Robert	attempted unsuccessfully	1983	Chapter in major work: Cambridge Illustrated History of the Middle Ages
Prestwich, Michael	absence of the hoped-for alliance	1997	Major work on King Edward I
Powell, James	potential that was rejected/pursued	2004	Major work on Crusades
Robinson, John J.	no alliance	1991	Templar/Freemason historian
Andrea, Alfred	all proposals failed	2003	Crusades encyclopedia
Amitai-Preiss, Reuven	Unsuccessful in achieving the goal of a common venture	1995	Major scholarly work on Mongols and Mamluks

Quotes

Number	Historian	Book	Page #	Descriptor	Term used	Quote	Notes
1	Barber, Malcolm	The New Knighthood	293-294	"possibility"	alliance	The period of the most intensive effort, though, seems to have been between 1300 and 1302, partly because it was believed in some quarters that there was a genuine possibility of an alliance with the Mongols. Both Pope Innocent IV and King Louis IX had sent representatives to the Mongols, but neither had found much to encourage them. However, the rise of Mamluk power and the defeat at Ain Jalut in 1260 seems to have persuaded the Mongols to take a more positive attitude to the Christians and, from 1267, embassies came to the west reasonably regularly in the hope of organising a joint campaign. The idea was not therefore new in 1300, but the attempts at practical implementation were to show that the logistical and political difficulties which had wrecked previous initiatives still existed.
2	Maalouf	Crusades Through Arab Eyes	254	"cherished dream"	alliance	Arghun, grandon of Hulegu, "had resurrected the most cherished dream of his predecessors: to form an alliance with the Occidentals and thus to trap the Mamluk sultanate in a pincer movement. Regular contacts were established between Tabriz and Rome with a view to organizing a joint expedition, or at least a concerted one."
3	Maalouf		267			guilty of having made common cause with the Mongol invaders"
4	Newman, Sharan	Real History Behind the Templars	174		"join forces"	But these were all small matters compared to the long-dreaded arrival of the Mongols in the Near East. Under Genghis Khan, they had already conquered much of China and were now moving into the ancient Persian Empire. Tales of their cruelty flew like crows through the towns in their path. However, since they were considered "pagans" there was hope among the leaders of the Church that they could be brought into the Christian community and would join forces to liberate Jerusalem again. Franciscan missionaries were sent east as the Mongols drew near."
5	Schein, Sylvia	"Gesta Dei per Mongolos"			"joined"	"the Mongol khan, joined by the Christian kings
6	Schein			"plans"	alliance	"plans for an alliance"
7	Sean Martin	Knights Templar	114		"combined force"
8	Tyerman	God's War		will of the wisps	"Mongol alliance"	"Edward contented himself with pursuing the will of the wisps of a Mongol alliance with the il-khan of Persia"
9	Tyerman		798	chimera	Franco-Mongol anti-islamic alliance	"The mission [of William of Rubruk] was regarded by some on all sides as another attempt to capture the chimera of a Franco-Mongol anti-Islamic alliance"
10	Tyerman		798-799	chimera	Franco-Mongol alliance	"an attempt to capture the chimera of a Franco-Mongol alliance....[turned out to be] a false hope for Outremer as for the rest of Christendom"
11	Tyerman		816	"led nowhere"	Mongol alliance	"The Mongol alliance, despite six further embassies to the west between 1276 and 1291, led nowhere"
12	David Nicolle			potential	"potential allies"	"potential allies", but that overall the major players were the Mamluks and the Mongols, and that the Christians were just "pawns in a greater game"
13		"History of Crusades", Vol. III	513-544		"relations"	"The Mongols and Western Europe". In this chapter an attempt will be made to give a succinct but comprehensive picture of the relations that existed between the Mongols and Western Europe."
14		"History of Crusades", Vol. III	526		"relations"	"the Mongols' relations with the west"
15		"History of Crusades", Vol. III	516	possibility	"possibility of an alliance	"The possibility of an alliance with the Mongols was completely lost from sight"
16		"History of Crusades", Vol. III	532	attempt	"alliance"	"Arghun's boldest attempt to establish an alliance with the western powers"
17		"History of Crusades", Vol. III	537	offered	"alliance"	"Oljeitu... followed the same friendly policy towards the Western powerns... and offered in very general terms an alliance... No answer by the French king to Oljeitu's letter has come to light"
18	Grousset, Andre	Croisades	521		"L'Alliance Franco-Mongole"	"Louis IX et l'Alliance Franco-Mongole"	(1930s) Adam Bishop refers to Grousset as "quaint and outdated"[2]
19	Grousset		653	understood the value	"l'Alliance Mongole"	"Seul Edward I comprit la valeur de l'Alliance Mongole" (Only Edward I understood the value of the Mongol alliance)
20	Grousset		686	?	"la coalition Franco-Mongole"	"La coalition Franco-Mongole dont les Hospitaliers donnaient l'exemple" (The Franco-Mongol alliance, exemplified by the Hospitallers)
21	Grousset	The Empire of the Steppes: A History of Central Asia	363	advantage	Franco-Mongol alliance	"Kitbuqa, now in control of Mongol Syria and Mongol Palestine, was well-disposed toward the Christians there, not only because he himself was a Nestorian, but also, it seems because he appreciated the advantage to both parties of the Franco-Mongol alliance. Unfortunately, though Bohemund VI, prince of Antioch-Tripoli, might share his views on the subject, the barons of Acre continued to see in the Mongols mere barbarians to whom even the Muslims were to be preferred. One of these barons, Count Julien of Sidon, attacked a Mongol patrol and killed Kitbuqa's nephew. The enraged Mongols replied by sacking Sidon. This was the end of the alliance, explicit or tacit, between Franks and Mongols."[3]
24	Demurger	The Last Templar	91	tried to form	strategic alliance with the Mongols	"The Cypriot Christians tried to form a strategic alliance with the Mongols"
25	Demurger		98	hope	Mongol alliance	"in the hope that all the promises made by the Mongol alliance would finally be realised"
26	Demurger		102	strategy	Mongol alliance	"the strategy of a Mongol alliance was not yet quite dead"
27	Demurger		105	strategy	Mongol alliance	"Thus ended the strategy of a Mongol alliance"
29	Demurger		207	possible	Mongol alliance	"...idea of a rapid reconquest of the Holy Land and Jerusalem was widely shared, all the more so because an alliance with the Mongols looked possible"
31	Demurger		217	opportunity	Mongol alliance	"in the late thirteenth and fourteenth century there was still an opportunity to be seized: the Mongol alliance"
32	Demurger		147	seal	Mongol alliance	"Above all, the expedition made manifest the unity of the Cypriot Franks and, through a material act, put the seal on the Mongol alliance."	1300 - Ruad (Mongols didn't show up)
33	Demurger	Croisades et croises au Moyen-Age	287	concretization	alliance	""The concretization of this alliance met with three obstacles etc..."
35	Demurger		287	cooperated		"These are the only Frank forces, located in Armenia and Cyprus, which cooperated with the Mongols"
36	Demurger		287	promises	Mongol alliance	"This ended the promisses of the Mongol alliance"
37	Riley-Smith, Jonathan	Atlas of the Crusades	114	ready to ally		"En 1285, Qalawun, nouveau sultan mamelouk, reprend l'offensive, qu'il dirige contre les Hospitaliers du nord, qui s'etaient montres prets a s'allier aux Mongols"
38	Stewart, Angus Donal	"The Assassination of King Het'um II: The Conversion of The Ilkhans and the Armenians"		promotion	Mongol alliance	"for the Armenian alignment with the Mongols, they were prominent in their promotion of a Mongol alliance, and a Franco-Mongol entente"
39		Encyclopedia Britannica		chimera	"alliance with the Mongols	"The alliance with the Mongols remained, from the first to the last, something of a chimera"[4]	1911
41	Richard, Jean	Histoire des Croisades	469	missed	Franco-Mongol alliance	""The Franco-Mongol alliance (...) seems to have been rich with missed opportunities" "In 1297 Ghazan resumes his projects against Egypt (...) the Franco-Mongol cooperation had thus survived, to the loss of Acre by the Franks, and to the conversion of the khan to Islam. It was to remain one of the political factors of the policy of the Crusades, until the peace treaty with the Mamluks, which was concluded in 1322 by khan Abu Said."
42	Richard		453	rallied	alliance	"The sustained attacks of Baibar (...) rallied the Occidentals to this alliance, to which the Mongols also convinced the Byzantines to adhere"
43	Richard, Jean		468(f)/455(e)	survived	Franco-Mongol cooperation	"Franco-Mongol cooperation thus survived both the loss of Acre by the Franks and the conversion of the Mongols of Persia to Islam. It was to remain one of the givens of crusading politics until the peace treaty with the Mamluks, which was concluded only in 1322 by the khan Abu Said. The Franks may be criticised for having done too little to promote this policy.... But we need to emphasise the role of the Frankish adventurers who had entered Mongol service and who made themselves the zealous agents of the agreement between their Mongol masters and the West."
44	Richard, Jean		424	hope	Mongol alliance	"The Mongol alliance could mean the intervention of a large army and other forms of assistance which could be helpful to a crusade. It is hardly surprising that, for nearly forty years, the Westerners remained hopeful of achieving this combination of their efforts and those of the sovereigns of Persia"[5]
45	Richard		456	foundered	Franco-Mongol alliance	"The Franco-Mongol alliance... foundered in the face of the vastness of the distances, and the impossibility of predicting events that make joint operations not feasible or of seizing chances offered. It is a story of lost opportunities."
46	Richard		487	offered	alliance	(Timeline) Hulegu offered an alliance to King Louis[6]
47	Richard		502	promulgation	liaison	(timeline) "1274: Promulgation of a Crusade, in liaison with the Mongols"
48	Sinor/Hazard	History of the Crusades	516	attempts	alliance	"It is important to note that attempts to seek an alliance with the Mongols were made by princes of France or England..."
49	Sinor/Hazard		519	possibility	alliance	"The possibility of an alliance with the Mongols"
50	Sinor/Hazard		523			[despite positive overtures, the] "policy of rapprochement was destined to fail"
51	Sinor/Hazard		524	hopeful	join forces	"Perhaps in the darkest moments of affliction Louis had the hopeful thought that the Mongols might wish to join forces with him against the common enemy"
52	Morgan, David	The Mongols	183	attempts	alliance	"From 1263 until well into the fourteenth century repeated attempts were made to arrange an alliance"
53	Morgan		185	problems		"No really effective joint action had ever been organized: in thirteenth-century conditions the problems of co-ordination appear to have been insuperable"
54	Morgan		186	attempts	alliance	"Contacts were maintained under Oljeitu... But after Oljeitu's reign attempts at alliance at last ceased."
55	Oldenbourg	The Crusades	620	alliance	alliance	(timeline mention) "1280: Alliance of Franks and Mongols against Qalawun"	Oldenbourg's 1966 book is about the Crusades through 1200. No other scholars agree with the "1280" date
56	Runciman, Steven	A History of the Crusades	332	suggest	alliance	"The King of Aragon, in conjunction with Pope Clement IV [sent a messenger to Abaqa] to suggest a military alliance. But Abaga, who was fully occupied by his war against the Golden Horde, would only make vague promises."
57	Runciman		332		military aid	In 1270, [Abaga] wrote to King Louis undertaking to grant military aid as soon as the Crusade appeared in Palestine. King Louis went instead to Tunis, where the Mongols could not help him."
58	Runciman		335-337	hope	help	"Edward..hoped to unite the Christians of the East into a formidable body and then to use the help of the Mongols....The English Prince was not much more successful with the Mongols.... By the spring of 1272 Prince Edward realized he was wasting his time."
59	Morgan, David	The Mongols (2nd ed.)	136	missed opportunity	allied	"This has long been seen as a 'missed opportunity' for the Crusaders. According to that opinion, most eloquently expressed by Grousset and frequently repeated by other scholars, the Crusaders ought to have allied themselves with the pro-Christian, anti-Muslim Mongols against the Mamluks. They might thus have prevented their own destruction by the Mamluks in the succeeding decades, and possibly even have secured the return of Jerusalem by favour of the Mongols."
60	Morgan	The Mongols (2nd ed.)	160	repeated attempts	alliance	"From 1263 until well into the fourteenth century repeated attempts were made to arrange an alliance, and these appear to have been entered into in perfectly good faith by both sides. We possess the texts of numerous letters sent in both directions. The Popes were always enthusiastic, as much for evangelistic as for specifically crusading reasons, and several western monarchs also treated the idea of an alliance seriously."
61	Jackson, Peter	New Cambridge Medieval History, vol. 5	719	no	military collaboration	"No military collaboration against the common Mamluk enemy resulted from the Il-khans' frequent embassies. The Mongol rulers did not come over to the Roman Church; nor did the Latin missionaries succeed in winning many of their subjects to the faith."
62	Jackson		716	had it been forged	Mongol-western alliance	"Like the failure to assist Hulegu's forces during their invasion of Syria in 1260, the lukewarm reaction accorded to his successors has been seen as a wasted opportunity. Underlying both verdicts, of course, is the belief that, had a Mongol-western alliance been forged and the Mamluk empire been overthrown, the Il-khanid state would in time have adopted Christianity and thereby changed the whole history of Persia and the Near East -- a dubious proposition."
63	Riley-Smith	Oxford Illustrated History of the Crusades	41	prospect	joint alliance	"The brunt of the sudden, ferocious descent of the Mongols upon Europe is 1241 was borne by the hapless Poles and Hungarians, prompting in the same year that declaration of the first of a number of crusades against them. Attitudes would change in the later thirteenth century with the prospect of a joint alliance against the Muslims."
64	Riley-Smith		175		accommodation	"King Het'um II [of Cilician Armenia] was able to reach an accommodation with the Mongols in the 1240s."
65	Richard, Jean		468 (english)	promise	cooperation of Franks and Mongols	[Cioli Bofeti's] mission was perhaps primarily to secure the cooperation of Franks and Mongols, and to implement the promise the latter had made to their allies, the return to them of the recovered Holy Land."
66	Prawer	The Crusaders' Kingdom	32	attempts	alliance	"The attempts of the crusaders to create an alliance with the Mongols failed."
67	Prawdin	Mongol Empire: Its Rise and Legacy	371	attempt	alliance	"the failure of the attempt at an alliance"
68	Runciman	History of the Crusades, vol. III	439-440	chances	Mongol alliance	"chances of a Mongol alliance with the Christians faded out"
69	Lebedel, Claude	Les Croisades, Origines et consequences	75	refused	alliance	"the Barons of the Holy Land refused an alliance with the Mongols, except for the king of Armenia and Bohemond VI, prince of Antioch and Count of Tripoli"
70	Clough , Garsoian, Hicks, Gay, Brandenburg	A History of the Western World: Ancient Times to 1715, 2nd ed.	299	possible	allies	"Despite the extreme cruelty of the new barbarian hordes, some western leaders saw in the still-heathen Mongols possible allies against Islam, and Christendom deluded itself with many tales about the legendary kingdom of Prester John. Missionaries traveled to the distant court of the khan hoping to convert him and win his aid, while the Latin attack against Islam continued unsuccessfully in the south."	(textbook)
71	Sinor, Denis	"Mongols and the West" (in Journal of Asian History)[7]		possibility	alliance	"The possibility of an alliance between the il-khans and the Franks was explored by both parties. ... Contacts between the two were quite frequent and aimed at establishing a coordination of eastern and western forces to counterbalance the formidable Mamluk threat...For a number of reasons which it cannot be our task to analyze here, the alliance between the il-khans and the West failed to become operative. Efforts by Berke and his successor Mongke Temur (1267-1280) were certainly instrumental in barring the il-khans from the Mediterranean world until such time as the collapse of Frank implantations in Outremer made any hope of cooperation between them and the il-khans illusory."
72	Jackson, Peter	Mongols and the West	6	failure to perceive	alliance	"Although several scholars have criticized the Catholic world for its failure to perceive what the Mongols of Persia offered, I shall argue that the majority of Western observers were lukewarm about an alliance precisely because they recognized Ilkhanid ambitions for what they were."
73	Jackson, Peter	Mongols and the West	4		Ilkhanid-Western contacts	"In trying to elicit why Ilkhanid-Western contacts bore no fruit..."
74	Jackson, Peter	Mongols and the West	4	failure	Ilkhanid-Western negotiations	"The failure of Ilkhanid-Western negotiations, and the reasons for it, are of particular importance in view of the widespread belief in the past that they might well have succeeded."
75	Jackson, Peter	Mongols and the West	1		concerted operations	"The Mongol Ilkhans of Persia made repeated overtures to Western rulers for concerted operations against the Muslim Mamluk Empire in Egypt and Syria."
76	Jackson, Peter	Mongols and the West	362	stillborn attempts	Ilkhanid-Western collaboration	"The still-born attempt to launch Ilkhanid-Western collaboration, the relatively fruitless efforts of the friars"
77	Jackson, Peter	Mongols and the West	179		diplomatic contacts	"Why, then, did the diplomatic contacts between the Ilkhanate and the West fail to lead anywhere?"
78	Jackson, Peter	Mongols and the West	173	attempts	assistance	"In their successive attempts to secure assistance from the Latin world, the Ilkhans took care to select personnel who would elicit the confidence of Western rulers and to impart a Christian complexion to their overtures."
79	Jackson, Peter	Mongols and the West	172		Mongol-Latin relations	"In many respects, the Mongol occupation of Syria in 1299-1300 represents the high water-mark of Mongol-Latin relations."
80	Jackson, Peter	Mongols and the West			collaboration	"Hulegu and his successors made a series of overtures designed to gain Latin collaboration in the war against the Mamluks. These diplomatic contacts, which continued into the early fourteenth century, were made with the popes and with Western European sovereigns, particularly the French and English kings and sometimes also those of Aragon and Sicily. Only minimally and rarely did they involve the Near Eastern Franks, who were now a negligible quantity."
81	Nicolle, David	The Mongol Warlords	114	lost opportunity	joined forces	"In later years Christian chroniclers would bemoan a lost opportunity in which Crusaders and Mongols might have joined forces to defeat the Muslims. But they were writing from the benefit of hindsight, after the Crusader States had been destroyed by the Muslim Mamluks. Few at the time -- certainly not those in the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem -- thought in such terms while Hulegu still aimed to extend Mongol rule over the entire known world."
82	Turnbull, Stephen	The Mongols	8	possibilities	alliance	"Christian kingdoms began to explore the possibilities of an alliance with the Mongols against the Muslim infidels."
83	Burger, Glenn	A Lytell Chronicle	xiii-xiv	refusal	Western-Mongol alliance	"The arrival of the Mongols in Persia in the middle of the century, and with it the possibility of a Western-Mongol alliance, provided a chance to break out of the strategic impasse that had always plagued Outremer: its dependence on constant infusions of European men and aid, and its uneven position against the forces of the sultans of Egypt. While the kingdom of Cilician Armenia under Hetoum I quickly responded to the potential offered by an alliance with the Mongols, the refusal of the Latin Christian states in the area to follow Hetoum's example and adapt to changing conditions by allying themselves with the new Mongol empire must stand as one of the saddest of the many failures of Outremer."
84	Morgan, David	"The Mongols and the Eastern Mediterranean"	204		neutrality	"The authorities of the crusader states, with the exception of Antioch, opted for a neutrality favourable to the Mamluks."
85	Phillips, J.R.	The Medieval Expansion of Europe	122	fell short of a commitment	alliance	"The pope expressed his pleasure at Abaka's letter, and promised that any future crusading army would seek the active co-operation of the Mongols. Yet, despite the fact that a crusade was actively being planned, Gregory X's reply fell short of a definite commitment to an alliance."
86	Cahen, Claude	"Mongols and the Near East" (in Setton's Crusades)	719[8]		good diplomatic relations	"The Il-khanid state...encompassed... rather good diplomatic relations with the Byzantine state in common opposition to the Golden Horde and the Mamluks, and also with the western Christans specifically against the Mamluks."
87	Cahen		722-723	sought	alliance	"The Mongols now sought an alliance which would produce a concerted effort by the Christians of Europe and themselves against the Mamluks."
88	Nersessian, Sirarpie Der	"The Kingdom of Cilician Armenia" (in Setton's Crusades)[9]	653	tried to win over	Christian-Mongol alliance	"Hetoum tried to win the Latin princes over to the idea of a Christian-Mongol alliance, but could convince only Bohemond VI of Antioch"
89	Nersessian		654	without any success	Mongol-Christian alliance	"Leon III believed, as his father had, in a Mongol-Christian alliance which would save the Holy Land; he made repeated pleas to the western powers; Abagha also sent envoys to the popes and to Edward I of England, without any success."
90	Atwood	Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire Entry on "Western Europe and the Mongol Empire"	583	never achieved	alliance	"Despite numerous envoys and the obvious logic of an alliance against mutual enemies, the papacy and the Crusaders never achieved the often-proposed alliance against Islam."	2004
91	Jackson, Peter	Mongols and the West	170	persisted in the quest	Western alliance	"Arghun had persisted in the quest for a Western alliance right down to his death without ever taking the field against the mutual enemy."
92	Edbury, Peter	"Christians and Muslims in the Eastern Mediterranean", The New Cambridge Medieval History, Vol. VI	871	attempted	join forces	"The Cypriots had attempted -- ineffectually it is true -- to join forces with the Mongols in their invasions of Syria in 1299 and 1301, and a Cyprus-based Templar force had briefly reoccupied the island of Ruad near Tortosa in 1301-1302. But after 1303 there were no more Mongol campaigns into Syria, and the idea that the Holy Land might be recovered for Christendom by the Ilkhans of Persia, who in any case by now had adopted Islam, ceased to be taken seriously."	2000
93	Mantran, Robert (Fossier, Robert, ed.)	"A Turkish or Mongolian Islam" in The Cambridge Illustrated History of the Middle Ages: 1250-1520 (trans. from French: Le Moyen Age. 3. Le Temps des Crises 1250-1520)	258	attempted unsuccessfully	alliance	"A more far-seeing policy might have enabled the Franks, by seeking an alliance with the Mongols sooner than they did (Louis IX attempted one unsuccessfully), to keep all or some of their positions in Syria and Palestine."	1983
94	Prestwich, Michael	Edward I	331	absence	Mongol alliance	"The prospects for the crusade were undoubtedly diminished in the absence of the hoped-for Mongol alliance."
95	Powell, James	Chapter 7 in Crusades: The Illustrated History, Madden, Thomas (ed.)	159	potential/rejected	Christian-Mongol alliance	"Mongke agreed to an alliance as long as Louis became his vassal, a condition the French king naturally rejected. Still, as the Mongol advances on Islam continued, the potential for a Christian-Mongol alliance remained and was later pursued by Lord Edward I of England."	2004
96	Robinson, John J.	Dungeon, Fire and Sword: The Knights Templar in the Crusades	372	no alliance	alliance	"Having failed to achieve their mission at the council [of Lyon], the Mongol envoys stayed behind in Europe to visit some of the secular rulers and make direct appeals for alliances to fight the Muslims, but they finally returned home to report to the ilkhan that there would be no alliance with a Christian Crusade."	1991
97	Robinson		381	no help	ally	"The one substantial fighting force that might be sought as an ally was that of the Latin Christians of the Crusader states, including the military orders. Abaga sent ambassadors to Acre. The Mongol envoys explained to the barons and grand masters that during the following year, 1281, the ilkhan Abaga planned to send all his forces, a mighty army of one hundred thousand men, into Syria with the final objective of the conquest of Egypt. In exchange for the assistance of the Crusaders with men and military supplies, Abaga would guarantee that their rewards would include all of the original kingdom of Jerusalem. Every object of the crusading desire would be fulfilled. The Latin Christians still had no central authority and no central voice. They had been so splintered by internal squabbles that they could not address the Mongol proposals.... Abaga's ambassadors went back to him frustrated and confused, but quite certain that the ilkhan could expect no help from the Crusaders."
98	Andrea, Alfred J.	Encyclopedia of the Crusades	218	all proposals failed	allies	"During the latter half of the thirteenth century, several popes and King Louis IX of France unsuccessfully sought to convert the Mongols, whom they mistakenly called the Tartars, to Latin Christianity and to enlist them as allies in the struggle against Islam. Likewise, during the late thirteenth century, several Mongol leaders sought military alliances with various Western leaders against the Mamluks, but all proposals failed."	2003
99	Amitai-Preiss, Reuven	Mongols and Mamluks: the Mamluk-Ilkhanid War, 1260-1281, chapter 4 "The Īlkhāns and the Franks"	105	unsuccessful	common venture	"…the fact is that through his reign Abagha sent at least four embassies to the West. Each visited more than one court, including that of the Pope, and carried a letter calling for a joint anti-Muslim campaign. This phenomenon, perhaps more than any other, indicates the importance which Abagha attributed to the war with the Mamluks, and the extent to which he wanted to extend his sway into Syria and perhaps beyond. Most of his successors shared these goals, and in order to realize them they attempted, like him, to interest the Christian West in a common venture. They were all equally unsuccessful in achieving this goal. "	1995
100	Barber, Malcolm	possibility	alliance	The two cities: medieval Europe, 1050-1320	135	in the context of Louis IX's crusade at Damietta, and after the payment of his ransom ... "During the withdrawal [from Damietta] the king was captured and only released on payment of a ransom of 800,000 besants and the cession of Damietta. Despite this disaster the king stayed in Outremer for another four years, rebuilding his defences and making contact with the Mongols, with whom the possibility of an alliance was being canvassed."	1992
101	Barber, Malcolm	The two cities: medieval Europe, 1050-1320	507	hope had vanished	Mongol-Christian alliance	"Although in the east Kubilai remained amenable to visits by westerners, including the Polos and the mendicants [friars in this case], any slim hope that a Mongol-Christian alliance could revive the sinking fortunes of the Crusader States had largely vanished by the 1260s, despite sporadic attempts at reviving it."	1992
102	Payne, Robert (2000)	The dream and the tomb: a history of the Crusades	390	time not ripe	alliance	in 1300 "Ghazan, before leaving Damascus, sent ambassadors to the pope and the sovereigns of Europe, urging them to pour men, money and armaments into Palestine, which was his gift to them. He wanted an alliance between the Mongols and the countries of Europe against the Mamelukes, and he was prepared to back up the alliance with his vast army." and later "The pope told the Mongol ambassadors that the time was not ripe for another Crusade, and the sovereigns of Europe said the same." It should be noted that this is a popular history, and is not footnoted very well."	2000
103	Prestwich, Michael	Edward I	75	try to organize	concerted action	dealing with Edward's crusade in 1271, "Edward spent frustrating weeks in Acre before moving against the enemy. His men and horses had to be prepared, and diplomatic arrangements had to be made. An English embassy was sent to the Mongol II-Khan Abagha, to try to organize concerted action against the redoubtable Baibars." (this is footnoted to Liber de Antiquis Legibus: Cronica maiorum et vicecomitum Londoniarum ed. T. Stapleton Camden Society 1846 p. 143)	1997
104	Prestwich, Michael	Edward I	78	no intention	help	still dealing with 1271-1272, this after Edward's attempt to take the fortress of Qaqun, while the Mongols advanced on Syria. "He [Edward] may have hoped that help would be provided by the Mongols, but Baibars soon entered into negotiations with them, and it became clear that they had no intention of launching a major campaign in the Holy Land."	1997
105	Prestwich, Michael	Edward I	80	efforts	co-operation of the Mongols	an assessment of Edward's crusade "In Palestine, Edward's diplomatic efforts to obtain the co-operation of the Mongols achieved little, and in military terms his troops were too few to achieve much."	1997
106	Prestwich, Michael	Edward I	331	absence of the hoped-for	Mongol alliance	talking about a proposed crusade after the fall of Acre in 1291, "The prospects for the crusade were undoubtedly diminished in the absence of the hoped-for Mongol alliance." and later on the same page "In that year the West rejoiced at news that a Mongol army under a new Il-Khan, Ghazan, had retaken Jerusalem, which was now thought to be safe for Christianity. The news was, of course, a considerable exaggeration of the facts, for Ghazan's control of the Holy Land only lasted a few months, and he was the first of the Il-Khans to accept the Moslem faith, a piece of information his envoys withheld from the West."	1997
107	Prestwich, Michael	Edward I	332	failure	Mongol alliance	"The failure of the Mongol alliance was but one of the many obstacles in the way of Edward's crusade in the early 1290's."	1997
108	Housley, Norman	The Later Crusades		no alliance	alliance	"...although Oljeitu, Ghazan's successor, made several overtures to Philip the Fair, Edward I, and Pope Clement V in the new century's first decade, no alliance was forthcoming."	2002
109	Knobler, Adam	"Pseudo-Conversions and Patchwork Pedigrees"[10]	184	attempts	alliance	"The centerpiece of this diplomacy was the attempt to form an alliance against the Mamlûks in conjunction with a Latin crusade to re-cover the East."	1996

Antioch

Did Bohemond VI, Prince of Antioch and Count of Tripoli, ally with the Mongols, or submit to the Mongols? I say submit:

Number	Historian	Book	Page #	Descriptor	Quote	Notes
1	Morgan, David	Mongols (2nd ed.)	135	submission	"The Crusader ruler of Antioch and Tripoli hastened to make his submission and to join forces with the all-conquering Mongols"
2	Jackson, Peter	Mongols and the West	117	surrendered	"The city of Antioch...surrendered and accepted a Mongol resident. Prince Bohemond VI, perhaps under the influence of his father-in-law King Het'um of Lesser Armenia, waited upon Hulegu in person and was allowed to reach a settlement that covered his county of Tripoli as well."
3	Richard, Jean	Crusades: 1071-1291	410	submission	"Under the influence of his father-in-law, the king of Armenia, the prince of Antioch had opted for submission to Hulegu"
4	Grousset, Rene	Epic of the Crusades	259	joined forces	"The prince of Antioch-Tripoli, Bohemund VI, in agreement with the King of Armenia, Hethoum the Great, resolutely joined forces with them."
5	Tyerman, Christopher	God's War	806	Mongol overlordship	"Bohemund VI of Antioch-Tripoli, briefly one of Outremer's most important power brokers, had already accepted Mongol overlordship, with a Mongol resident and battalion stationed in Antioch itself, where they stayed until the fall of the city to the Mamluks in 1268."
6	Nicolle, David	The Mongol Warlords	114	submission	"Bohemond VI of Tripoli and Antioch, along with neighbor and father-in-law, the Armenian King Hethoum of Cilicia, had become vassals of Hulegu. Both had received extra territory in return for their submission. Antioch's action was, however, denounced in the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem and Bohemond was not particularly well treated by his new Mongol overlord. His lands were still ravaged by Mongol raiders and, in the words of his contemporaries, he 'tasted the baseness of Tartar slavery'. Later stories of the honour in which Bohemond was held by Hulegu appear to be fables, like the story that Bohemond accompanied Kit-Buqa during the capture of Damascus, where he converted a mosque into a Latin church."
7	Howorth, Henry Hoyle	History of the Mongols: From the 9th to the 19th century	166-167	pay tribute	"Soon after this Bohemund, Prince of Antioch, and many other Christian princes agreed to pay tribute to the Mongols	Published 1876
8	Runciman, Sir Steven	"The Crusader States, 1243-1291 (in Setton's Crusades)[11]	572	vassal	"Hetoum I, king of Armenia, had long been an advocate of alliance with the Mongols. In 1254 he had himself visited the Great Khan Mongke at Karakorum. In return for calling himself the Khan's vassal he was promised increase of territory and protection against the Anatolian Turks. He persuaded his son-in-law Bohemond VI, who seems in some way to have regarded him as an overlord, to follow his policy. When Hulagu appeared in northern Syria, Hetoum and Bohemond hastened to pay a deferential visit to his camp"
9	Amitai-Preiss, Reuven	Mongols and Mamluks: The Mamluk-Īlkhānid War, 1260-1281[12]	24	tributary/submission	Already in 1246, it is reported that Bohemond V of Antioch, along with King Het'um of Cilician Armenia ... had become a tributary of the Mongols. In 1259, as the Mongols approached Antioch, his son and successor, Bohemond VI, went with his father-in-law, the same Het'um, and made his submission to Hulegu.	1995

Cilician Armenia

Point of dispute at Talk:Franco-Mongol alliance: Did the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia, under King Hetoum I of Armenia, ally with the Mongols, or submit to the Mongols? I (Elonka) say that the consensus of modern historians is that the correct definition is "submission."

Number	Historian	Book	Page #	Descriptor	Quote	Notes
1	Richard, Jean	"European voyages in the Indian Ocean and Caspian Sea (12th-15th centuries)" in Journal of Persian Studies	46	submission	"The Mongol conquest of Persia and Mesopotamia removed the obstacles to these journeys, and the submission of the Armenian King of Cilicia and the Seljuq Sultan of Turkey to these same Mongols guaranteed the Europeans an easy access to the territories controlled by the conquerors."
2	Cahen, Claude	La Syrie du Nord	693	Vassals (vassaux)	"Le roi Hethoum a obtenu les bonnes graces du grand Khan, et Antioche, en se reconciliant avec les Armeniens, entresdans l'orbite mongole elle aussi. Mais en Egytpe, le regime ayyoubide a ete reuverse par la milice des Mamlouks qui, sous la conduite de grands sultans, expulsera les Mongols et leurs vassaux franco-armeniens de toute la Syrie" (approx trans: King Hethoum was in the good graces of the Great Khan, and Antioch, linked with the Armenians, entered into the Mongol orbit as well. But in Egypt, the Ayyubid regime had been deposed by the Mamluk military, who, under the direction of the sultans, expelled the Mongols and their Franco-Armenian vassals from all of Syria)
3	Stewart, Angus Donal	"Logic of Conquest"	8	subjection	"The Armenian king saw alliance with the Mongols -- or, more accurately, swift and peaceful subjection to them -- as the best course of action."
4	Jackson, Peter	Mongols and the West	74	submission	"King Het'um of Lesser Armenia, who had reflected profoundly upon the deliverance afforded by the Mongols from his neighbbours and enemies in Rum, sent his brother, the Constable Smbat (Sempad) to Guyug's court to offer his submission."
5	Amitai-Preiss, Reuven	Mongols and Mamluks: The Mamluk-Īlkhānid War, 1260-1281[13]	24	tributary/submission	"Already in 1246, it is reported that Bohemond V of Antioch, along with King Het'um of Cilician Armenia ... had become a tributary of the Mongols."	1995
6	Nicolle, David	The Mongol Warlords	114	submission	"Bohemond VI of Tripoli and Antioch, along with neighbor and father-in-law, the Armenian King Hethoum of Cilicia, had become vassals of Hulegu. Both had received extra territory in return for their submission."
7	Riley-Smith	The Crusades	82	subject power	"In the 1250s King Hetoum entered, as a subject power, into an alliance with the Mongols."
8	Runciman, Sir Steven	"The Crusader States, 1243-1291 (in Setton's Crusades)[14]	572	vassal	"Hetoum I, king of Armenia, had long been an advocate of alliance with the Mongols. In 1254 he had himself visited the Great Khan Mongke at Karakorum. In return for calling himself the Khan's vassal he was promised increase of territory and protection against the Anatolian Turks. He persuaded his son-in-law Bohemond VI, who seems in some way to have regarded him as an overlord, to follow his policy. When Hulagu appeared in northern Syria, Hetoum and Bohemond hastened to pay a deferential visit to his camp."
9	Luisetto, Frederic	Armeniens et autres chretiens d'orient	237	Soumission (submission)	"1244: Soumission d'Hét'oum Ier, roi de Cilicie"	2007