User:Acdixon/John C. Breckinridge's military service in the American Civil War

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A man with dark hair and a long mustache, seated, wearing a military jacket and vest
Portrait of John C. Breckinridge by Eliphalet Frazer Andrews

John C. Breckinridge's military service in the American Civil War lasted from November 1861 to February 1865.

Enlistment[edit]

After Unionists seized control of Kentucky in September 1861, Breckinridge learned that a regiment under Colonel Thomas E. Bramlette had been dispatched from Camp Dick Robinson to arrest him.[1] Fleeing east from Lexington, he was joined in Prestonsburg, Kentucky, by fellow Confederate sympathizers George W. Johnson, George Baird Hodge, William Preston, and William E. Simms.[1] Continuing east, the party rode to Abingdon, Virginia, then took a train to Confederate-held Bowling Green, Kentucky.[1] The Kentucky General Assembly demanded Breckinridge's resignation as a U.S. Senate on October 2, but pro-Confederate Governor Beriah Magoffin refused to sign the resolution, preventing its enforcement.[2] On October 8, Breckinridge issued an open letter to his constituents in which he declared "I exchange with proud satisfaction a term of six years in the United States Senate for the musket of a soldier."[3] Later that month, he was part of a convention in Confederate-controlled Russellville, Kentucky, that denounced the Unionist legislature as not representing the will of most Kentuckians and called for a sovereignty convention to be held in that city on November 18.[4] Breckinridge, George W. Johnson, and Humphrey Marshall were named to the planning committee, but Breckinridge did not attend the convention, which created a provisional Confederate government for Kentucky.[4] The existence of this provisional government prompted the Provisional Confederate Congress to admit Kentucky to the Confederacy on December 10, 1861, although the Unionist legislature in Frankfort continued to govern the state.[5]

A dark haired, clean-shaven man dressed in a double-breasted military uniform
Breckinridge early in the war

Historian James Klotter called Breckinridge "the most important Kentuckian" to join the Confederacy.[6] On October 13, 1861, Simon B. Buckner recommended to Confederate President Jefferson Davis, that Breckinridge be commissioned a brigadier general and either given command of one of the two brigades in Buckner's Second Division or lead a Confederate unit into eastern Kentucky, where Breckinridge had been very popular as a politician.[7] Breckinridge, Preston, Simms, and Marshall traveled from Bowling Green to Nashville, then on to the Confederate capital at Richmond, arriving on October 21.[8] Davis briefly considered appointing Breckinridge as a permanent replacement for resigned Secretary of War Leroy Pope Walker – Attorney General Judah P. Benjamin was temporarily filling this post as well – but instead commissioned him a brigadier general on November 2, 1861.[9] Davis gave the eastern Kentucky assignment to Marshall and assigned Breckinridge to Buckner's division in the Army of Central Kentucky.[7]

Breckinridge accepted his commission the next day and left Richmond on November 6.[10] On his return to Bowling Green on November 16, he was given charge of the First Kentucky Brigade, consisting of about 5,000 troops in five infantry regiments – the 2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th, and 6th Kentucky infantries – two artillery batteries under Rice E. Graves and Robert L. Cobb, respectively, and a small cavalry under John Hunt Morgan, although Morgan's troops were frequently detached on assignment.[11] Within Colonel Roger W. Hanson's 2nd Kentucky Infantry was a company under Captain Robert Jefferson Breckinridge, Jr., John C. Breckinridge's nephew.[11] Cabell Breckinridge, John C. Breckinridge's oldest son, was a private in this company.[11]

Service in the Western Theater[edit]

The quality of weapons used by Breckinridge's men varied from Harpers Ferry rifles, to flintlocks and muskets, to Bowie knives.[12] Virginia Governor John Letcher helped standardize the brigade's weaponry.[12] During the next several weeks, Albert Sidney Johnston, commander of the Army of Central Kentucky, moved Breckinridge's men along the Confederate line in Bowling Green; reports variously reached Union officials that the 1st Kentucky was threatening Owensboro in western Kentucky and Elizabethtown in the central part of the state.[12] Because of their constant relocation, Breckinridge had to drill his troops on the move.[12]

Successive Confederate defeats at Mill Springs, Fort Henry, and Fort Donelson in early 1862 shattered Albert Sidney Johnston's line and isolated his forces from those of Leonidas K. Polk at Columbus, making his position at Bowling Green untenable.[13] Breckinridge covered Johnston's retreat from Bowling Green toward Burnsville, Mississippi.[14] En route, George B. Crittenden was relieved of command for allegedly being drunk during the Mill Springs defeat; this left Breckinridge as the ranking general in Johnston's 7,000-man reserve corps.[14][15]

Battle of Shiloh[edit]

Main article: Battle of Shiloh

On April 2, Breckinridge received word at Burnsville that Johnston intended to counterattack against Ulysses S. Grant at Pittsburg Landing, Tennessee.[16] He arrived with the reserve corps on April 5 and joined Johnston's council of war.[17] Braxton Bragg and P. G. T. Beauregard were convinced that the many delays in Johnston's attack and a few incidental encounters with Grant's troops had cost the Confederates the element of surprise.[17] They advocated falling back to Corinth, Mississippi, and preparing a new plan for counterattacking.[17] Johnston, Polk, and Breckinridge remained confident in the planned attack, which commenced the following morning.[17]

Johnston called up the reserves in an attempt to push Grant's forces into the Tennessee River, and they made slow progress toward that objective all day.[15] Johnston first ordered Breckinridge's reserves to protect his left flank, then decided to shift them to the right flank to assist with his main charge.[18] Consequently, Breckinridge sent brigades under John S. Bowen and W. S. Statham to Johnston's right and Robert P. Trabue to the left to assist Bragg.[18] Confederate forces spent much of the afternoon defeating a stubborn Union regiment defending a location nicknamed the "Hornets' Nest".[19] While trying to rally a stubborn regiment of Tennesseans to charge, Johnston was struck by a musket ball and, ignoring the wound, bled to death, leaving Beauregard in command.[19][20] In the aftermath of Johnston's death, the Confederates led ill-coordinated charges against the enemy, but they eventually forced the surrender of Benjamin Prentiss's division around 5:00 p.m.[21] Breckinridge reorganized his troops and was preparing to charge the last line of Union forces mustering near Pittsburgh Landing, but Beauregard called a halt to the fighting for the night.[19]

During the night, Grant recovered a division that had been lost during the fighting and was reinforced by two more divisions under Don Carlos Buell.[19] The next morning, Grant used his reinforcements to go on the offensive against the Confederates, costing them all the ground they had captured the previous day.[19] Breckinridge's forces were successively driven back by divisions under two of his Kentucky friends – William "Bull" Nelson and Thomas L. Crittenden.[22] About noon, Breckinridge counterattacked and recaptured a lost artillery battery, but an hour later, the reinforced federals re-took the Hornet's Nest, and by 2:00 p.m., Beauregard ordered a retreat to Corinth, Mississippi.[23] Tired and short on rations, Breckinridge's reserve corps covered retreat, collecting abandoned arms to replace the ill-suited ones used by many of Breckinridge's men and recovering the wounded and burying the dead whenever possible.[24][25] The enemy showed no inclination to pursue the retreating Confederates, and Breckinridge joined them at Corinth on April 10.[26]

The official casualty report showed 386 killed, 1,682 wounded, and 165 missing from Breckinridge's brigade, but Davis wrote that, considering temporary desertions and walking wounded, the total number of casualties may have been higher.[27] Among the dead was Breckinridge's friend, George W. Johnson, who enlisted in the 4th Kentucky Infantry shortly after being elected governor of Kentucky's provisional Confederate government.[23] As a dying Johnson was taken from the field, some – including Grant – mistakenly believed him to be Breckinridge.[23] Breckinridge personally led his men through much of the fighting was struck by two spent bullets; he also found several holes in his uniform after the battle.[27]

Breckinridge's April 14 promotion to major general cited his performance at Shiloh.[5] His new division included brigades under Statham, James Morrison Hawes, William Preston, and Benjamin Hardin Helm.[28] His men again acted as the Confederates' reserve corps at Corinth, constantly repositioning to counter federal troop movements.[28] On May 29, Beauregard anticipated an attack by a superior federal force and ordered his men to fall back to Tupelo, Mississippi; Breckinridge's reserves again covered the retreat.[28] While there, Breckinridge was granted a four-week leave of absence to convalesce from an illness that had affected him intermittently for months.[28] During this time, he visited with the family of his future daughter-in-law, Katherine Carson, at their plantation in Madison Parish, Louisiana.[28]

Battle of Baton Rouge[edit]

Main article: Battle of Baton Rouge (1862)

Breckinridge was still on leave when approximately 4,000 of his soldiers were ordered to join Earl Van Dorn at Vicksburg, Mississippi, on June 19.[28][29] Breckinridge left Louisiana for Vicksburg on June 28.[28] The Confederates spent most of July anticipating a federal attack on Vicksburg that never came, although they exchanged fire with a few gunboats.[30][31]

On July 25, Van Dorn ordered Breckinridge to Camp Moore near Tangipahoa, Louisiana; from there, he hoped Breckinridge could recapture Baton Rouge, Louisiana, breaking the Union blockade of the Red River and facilitating a future campaign to reclaim New Orleans.[32][33] Breckinridge's men numbered 3,400 when he left Vicksburg, but by the time he rendezvoused with Brigadier General Daniel Ruggles Camp Moore on July 28, heat, malaria, lack of shelter, and desertion had reduced his numbers to about 2,600 effectives.[29][33][34] Combined with Ruggles' men, the Confederates numbered above 4,000, but by the time they reached Baton Rouge on August 4, their numbers had dwindled to about 2,500, half of their enemy's estimated strength.[35]

The August 5 attack commenced shortly after 5:00 a.m.[36] Initially, the Confederates encountered less resistance than expected, but as they advanced through the city, several brigade and regimental commanders were killed or wounded, and an order came from an unknown officer to fall back.[37] At this, Breckinridge rode into the battle to counter the retreat order.[38] Encouraged by his presence, the Confederates reformed and renewed the offensive until, low on ammunition, Breckinridge ordered them to resort to bayonet charges.[38] The Union commander, Brigadier General Thomas Williams, was killed in the fighting.[39]

A boat whose deck is just above the water line
The sinking of the CSS Arkansas prevented Breckinridge from holding Baton Rouge.

Breckinridge's men captured several prisoners and destroyed many of their supplies.[29] The federals reached the riverfront where they were supported by five Union gunboats.[40] Van Dorn had ordered the ironclad CSS Arkansas to Baton Rouge to support Breckinridge's attack despite her commander's protestations that needed repairs were not yet complete.[41] A mechanical failure forced the crew to sink the vessel before it reached the battle; unable to check the Union naval support, Breckinridge fell back.[29][39][40] A lack of picks and shovels prevented the burial of the 450 Confederates killed at Baton Rouge.[31] Union Major General Benjamin F. Butler, the officer in charge of New Orleans, wildly exaggerated Breckinridge's strength to be as many as 15,000 effectives, and some federal reports of the battle erroneously maintained that Breckinridge had lost an arm in the fight.[42]

Breckinridge sent a small force to occupy the bluffs at Port Hudson.[39] Confederate forces held this position – which opened the Red River to their supply ships – for over a year.[43] Historian Michael Ballard wrote that it was also a good position for defending Vicksburg from the south but disputed the notion, advanced by other historians, that it gave the Confederates control of the river from Port Hudson to Vicksburg, noting that the Confederates' naval power was insufficient to patrol the river between the two.[39] Plagued by a lack of rations and supplies, only about half of the men who returned to Jackson, Mississippi, with Breckinridge were still able to fight when they arrived.[31]

Preparation for the Kentucky Campaign[edit]

On August 8, Braxton Bragg wrote to Breckinridge, informing him of his intent to invade Kentucky and requesting that Breckinridge join him.[44] Bragg and other Confederate leaders hoped Breckinridge's presence in Kentucky would rally Confederate support there and spur enlistments.[29] Van Dorn was reluctant to release Breckinridge to Bragg because he and Sterling Price were planning their own invasion of western Tennessee and Kentucky and wanted Breckinridge for that expedition.[45] An order from Secretary of War George W. Randolph finally released Breckinridge from Van Dorn, but in a final act of defiance, Van Dorn retained all but 2,500 of Breckinridge's men.[45] Entraining on September 19, Breckinridge and his men arrived at Knoxville, Tennessee, on October 3, 1862.[45][46]

On his arrival, Breckinridge learned that Brig. Gen. Samuel B. Maxey had about 4,000 troops stationed at various points in and around the city.[47] Further, Maj. Gen. Samuel Jones reported that Roger Hanson's 2nd Kentucky Infantry – about 2,000 men strong – had recently been exchanged; they would soon arrive in Knoxville, where 6,000 stands of arms were available to arm them.[47][48] Breckinridge proposed to await the arrival of the exchanged prisoners, arm them from the guns in Knoxville, and send the remaining guns to Bragg via Maxey's troops.[47]

Breckinridge was to escort supply trains under Leonidas K. Polk and William J. Hardee into Kentucky, but they had not yet reached Knoxville.[47] In a letter to Edmund Kirby Smith, who was already in Kentucky with Bragg, Breckinridge warned that he did not yet have enough transportation for his division's supplies.[47] He told Smith that he planned to lead his men through Cumberland Gap, arriving in London, Kentucky by October 17.[47] Three days later, he reported to Bragg that transportation for his and Maxey's troops was en route from Chattanooga, Tennessee, and Jackson, Mississippi, but that neither Polk nor Hardee had yet reached Knoxville.[49] The exchanged 2nd Kentucky Infantry would reach Breckinridge by October 7, but Van Dorn retained one regiment, reducing the number forwarded to Breckinridge by about 700 men.[49]

Events in central Tennessee further reduced Breckinridge's forces. Adequate transportation having arrived, Maxey departed for Kentucky with 5,000 troops, but after Nathan Bedford Forrest urgently requested reinforcements for his headquarters at Murfreesboro, Tennessee, Jones ordered the 60th North Carolina Infantry – already promised to Breckinridge – to Forrest instead.[50] Additionally, Jones redirected some of the 2nd Kentucky Infantry to Forrest instead of Breckinridge and reallocated some of Knoxville's weaponry to Murfreesboro.[51] It was October 15 before Breckinridge was able to depart for Kentucky; he reported to War Department officials that his forces included "1,700 Kentuckians, 600 miscellaneous troops, and two batteries [the 1st Kentucky Artillery and Graves' Battery]".[52]

Relocation to Middle Tennessee[edit]

As Breckinridge's men broke camp on the morning of October 16 near Maynardville, Tennessee, a courier arrived with news of Bragg's defeat at Perryville.[53] The courier carried new orders from Bragg; Breckinridge and Maxey were to forward any excess provisions to Bragg's army at Cumberland Gap, then double back to Knoxville and prepare for the defense of Middle Tennessee.[53] Arriving in Knoxville on the evening of October 20, Breckinridge again found insufficient transportation for his men.[54] Bragg arrived in Knoxville soon after, and when additional rolling stock arrived in Knoxville on October 23, he ordered Breckinridge to proceed to Murfreesboro and take charge of the preparations there.[54] Because the bridge over the Tennessee River at Bridgeport, Alabama, had been destroyed, Breckinridge's forces had to be ferried across, delaying their arrival in Murfreesboro until October 28.[55]

A man with salt-and-pepper hair, a mustache, and a full beard wearing a double-breasted military jacket
Braxton Bragg grew to distrust Breckinridge.

On his arrival, Breckinridge organized the assembled infantrymen into three brigades under Roger Hanson, Joseph B. Palmer, and Francis Marion Walker.[56] Major J. T. Montgomery was placed in charge of the reserve artillery, and Forrest was given command of the cavalry.[56] Learning that several Louisville and Nashville Railroad cars – potentially of use to Union forces – were located in the rail yards at Edgefield (now part of East Nashville), Breckinridge ordered Hanson's and Palmer's brigades, along with Forrest's cavalry, to conduct decoy raids on Union forces on the outskirts of Nashville, distracting their attention from John Hunt Morgan's cavalry, who were to overwhelm the Union defenses at Edgefield and destroy the rolling stock.[57] When the operation commenced on November 5, James S. Negley, commander of the Union forces at Nashville, correctly deduced that the operations against Nashville were diversions and reinforced the rail yard, reducing the damage incurred to a few rail cars and an old building.[58]

Still waiting for Bragg to join him at Murfreesboro, Breckinridge lacked the manpower to lead an assault on Nashville, and the Confederates had so damaged the Louisville and Nashville's lines during the Kentucky Campaign that Union General William S. Rosencrans's troops were unable to reach Nashville until November 26.[59] By that time, Bragg had rendezvoused with Breckinridge at Murfreesboro.[59] Growing tensions between Breckinridge and Bragg came to a head with the execution of Corporal Asa Lewis of the 6th Kentucky Infantry in late December.[60] Lewis's enlistment had ended weeks before, but he continued to serve with the 6th Kentucky.[61] When reports of his family's desperate condition reached him, Lewis came to their aid.[61] Lewis was arrested, and a court martial convicted him of desertion.[62] Lewis claimed he was returning to his post when arrested, and the Kentucky officers in Bragg's army asked for leniency, but Bragg insisted on making Lewis an example.[62] At the execution, witnesses reported that Breckinridge was so sickened by it that he slumped forward on his horse and those around him came to his aid to prevent his falling off.[62] He protested Bragg's "military murder", but quelled several near-mutinies against him by Kentucky troops.[63]

Battle of Stones River[edit]

Main article: Battle of Stones River

Rosencrans's Army of the Cumberland finally moved against Murfreesboro on December 31, 1862.[61] During the early part of the battle, Breckinridge was stationed on the east side of the Stones River.[29] Bragg successfully repelled the initial attack and called for Breckinridge to reinforce him on the west bank.[61] Although there was no fighting on the east bank, John Pegram had reported the approach of a large Union force under Brigadier General Horatio P. Van Cleve approaching Breckinridge's artillery on Wayne's Hill.[64] Pegram had failed to inform Breckinridge that Van Cleve had recrossed the river to reinforce the federals on the west bank; this delayed Breckinridge's compliance with Bragg's order by about three hours.[65] After learning that Van Cleve was on the west bank, Breckinridge rushed to the west bank.[64] Breckinridge's four brigades joined Polk's attack on a federal position within a cedar grove called the Round Forest, suffering heavy casualties but finally dislodging the enemy just before nightfall.[66] That night, Bragg ordered Breckinridge's division back across the river.[61]

During the night, Van Cleve also returned to the east side of the river, positioning his artillery on a high ridge near Wayne's Hill.[67] Bragg believed that Van Cleve could threaten Polk's men from that position and that taking the ridge would not only neutralize the threat but would allow Confederate artillery to be positioned there to shell Union forces under Thomas Crittenden.[67] He made the decision to attack Van Cleve without consulting Polk, Hardee, or Breckinridge.[67] Upon learning of Bragg's plans, Polk opined that Van Cleve was not a threat to him from the ridge.[67] Breckinridge also questioned the wisdom of the attack, writing to William Preston, "this attack is made against my judgment and by special order of General Bragg... if it should result in disaster and I be among the killed, I want you to do justice to my memory and tell the people that that I believed this attack to be very unwise and tried to prevent it".[63] Each of the four brigadier generals under Breckinridge agreed that the attack was imprudent, and Breckinridge's son, Clifton, later recalled that Hanson was so outraged that he threatened to kill Bragg; Breckinridge and Preston prevailed upon him not to carry through with his threat.[68]

Despite heavy Union artillery fire which killed several of his men, including Hanson, Breckinridge's initial assault dislodged the federals from their position.[69] Although the purpose of the attack had been to secure the location for Confederate artillery, only Graves' Battery reached the top of the ridge with Breckinridge's infantry.[70] Graves rode back to the base of the ridge and found Henry Semple's battery; Semple claimed he had not advanced because he had received no orders from his superior, Felix Huston Robertson.[70] Robinson and his artillery was found still in the woods where the Confederates had arrayed themselves prior to the charge; he later claimed that he thought Breckinridge had been unable to capture the left side of the ridge (where Robertson was supposed to set up his artillery) and "decided to alter the plan".[70] Without artillery support, Breckinridge was unable to hold the ridge.[70] Thomas Crittenden's artillery bombarded the Confederates at a rate of 100 shells per hour, allowing the retreating Union forces to regroup and re-take the ridge.[63] By noon on January 3, Bragg ordered a retreat from Murfreesboro.[71] Breckinridge again covered the retreat, and the federals again chose not to pursue.[71] Bragg's army regrouped at Tullahoma, Tennessee, about 30 miles (48 km) south of Murfreesboro near the Duck River.[71]

Over 1,300 of Breckinridge's men – about 30% of his entire command – were killed in the fighting.[63] Tradition holds that, immediately after the battle, Breckinridge rode through the broken ranks of the First Kentucky Brigade, weeping and lamenting, "My poor orphans! My poor orphans!"[63] Davis speculates that the nickname may have referred to the fact that the brigade's commander, Robert Hanson, had been killed in the fighting, or it may have alluded to the idea that the Kentuckians were fighting for the Confederacy while their native state sided with the Union.[72] Whatever the case, the incident brought notoriety to the unit, which became known as the "Orphan Brigade".[63] Outraged Kentuckians encouraged Breckinridge to resign his commission and challenge Bragg to a duel.[73] Many still blamed Bragg for the failure of the Kentucky Campaign and were vocal in their criticism.[63]

In his official report, Bragg put much of the blame for the defeat on Breckinridge.[62] Although Robertson's initial report to Breckinridge contained no criticism of Breckinridge's actions at Stones River, Bragg requested a second report from Robertson, to be submitted directly to him, and instructed him to comment upon the support his artillery received from Breckinridge's infantry.[74] Robertson understood Bragg's intent, and in his second report, which he later admitted contained inaccuracies, he blamed Breckinridge for every failure of the attack on Van Cleve's position.[74] Bragg appended Robertson's report to his own and also enclosed a statement of losses which underrepresented the percentage of Breckinridge's men killed in the fighting.[74] On March 31, 1863, Breckinridge wrote to Adjutant General Samuel Cooper to request a court of inquiry, claiming Bragg's report failed "to do justice to the behavior of my division".[62][75] The court of inquiry was never granted.[62]

Vicksburg Campaign[edit]

Main article: Vicksburg Campaign

A period of idleness followed the engagement at Stones River.[76] Finally, on May 23, 1863, Breckinridge was ordered to join Joseph E. Johnston's attempt to relieve Lieutenant General John C. Pemberton by breaking Ulysses S. Grant and William T. Sherman's siege of Vicksburg.[77] He arrived in Jackson, Mississippi, on June 1, and Johnston immediately put him in charge of all the troops in and around the city.[78] Knowing that the Confederate situation at Vicksburg was dire, he began preparing Jackson as a retreat destination and a potential base for an attack against Grant.[79]

On July 1, Johnston readied all the forces under his command – some 28,000 strong – to march toward Vicksburg an an attempt to break the siege.[79] Breckinridge's men followed the line of the Vicksburg and Jackson Railroad and arrived at Champion Hill near Clinton, Mississippi, on July 4.[79] It was there that he learned of the fall of Vicksburg, and early on July 5, Johnston ordered a hasty retreat back to Jackson.[79] By July 9, his men were manning their previously-prepared defenses in that city.[79] On July 12, three brigades from the XVI Corps advanced on the center of Breckinridge's position on a reconnaissance mission.[80] Breckinridge's subordinate, Brig. Gen. Marcellus Augustus Stovall kept his Confederates in hiding until the Federals were within 200 yards (180 m) of his position, then opened fire.[80] Supported by flanking fire from Breckinridge's artillery under Robert Cobb and C. H. Slocomb, Stovall forced a retreat.[80] The victory was short-lived, however; faced with Sherman's superior numbers, Johnston ordered a retreat from Jackson on July 16.[80] After covering the retreat, Breckinridge's men constructed a bivouac near Morton, Mississippi to recover from the summer heat.[80]

Chattanooga Campaign[edit]

Main article: Chattanooga Campaign

On August 23, Breckinridge applied for a twenty-day leave, but two days later, he was ordered to reinforce Bragg at Chattanooga, where he faced an advance by Maj. Gen. William S. Rosencrans.[81] Despite the lack of advance planning for the move, Breckinridge and his 4,500 men arrived at Tyner's Station, about 8 miles (13 km) from Chattanooga, on September 2.[81] His division was placed in D. H. Hill's Second Corps alongside that of Patrick Cleburne.[73]

Battle of Chickamauga[edit]

Main article: Battle of Chickamauga

Hill's Corps saw no major fighting on September 19, 1863, the first day of the Battle of Chickamauga.[73] Near the ford at Glass's Mill, Breckinridge sent Brig. Gen. Benjamin Hardin Helm across Chickamauga Creek with six pieces of artillery to draw the fire of Union artillery, revealing their position.[82] After an extended exchange of shells, Breckinridge recalled Helm to his position and advanced northward along the creek, leaving two infantry regiments and a few artillery guns to guard the crossing.[82]

It was after 10:00 p.m. before Breckinridge's men crossed Alexander's Bridge and encountered Leonidas K. Polk, who Bragg had recently placed over Hill and his corps.[83] On Breckinridge's request, Polk allowed the men to camp for the night, resuming the march toward their intended destination before dawn.[83] Polk did not tell Breckinridge that Bragg had planned an assault for daybreak the next morning or that Breckinridge's division was to be the first to attack.[83] After a few hours' sleep, Breckinridge began moving his men around 3:30 a.m.[84] After a slow 1.5-mile (2.4 km) march, the men were in position, and Breckinridge rode off to consult with Cleburne, who was similarly ignorant of Bragg's plans.[84] At 7:00 a.m., Hill joined Breckinridge and Cleburne; the messenger bearing Polk's instructions about the morning attack had not reached Hill, and the three generals concurred that, in their present alignment, they were no match for Thomas' four Union divisions, positioned behind hastily constructed breastworks.[84] The attack did not commence until 9:00 a.m. when Bragg himself rode into the camp and personally delivered the order.[73][85]

Despite the delay, the brigades of Daniel Adams and Marcellus Stovall easily gained the left flank of George Henry Thomas' Union force, including the road to Rossville, Georgia, one potential avenue of retreat, but Benjamin Hardin Helm's brigade was checked by Thomas' fortified troops; Helm and almost 30% of his men were killed within an hour.[86] Desperate to turn back Adams and Stovall's flanking brigades, Thomas sent nearly continuous requests for reinforcements to Rosencrans.[87] By 10:45 a.m., Rosencrans had sent a total of eight brigades to Thomas, and the movement of so many troops left a gap in Rosencrans' center just as Lt. Gen. James Longstreet commenced an attack at that location.[87] By 1:00 p.m., Rosencrans, Crittenden, and McCook's forces were retreating to Chattanooga, Tennessee.[87] Only Thomas's resistance prevented a complete destruction of the Union army.[5] Thomas had re-taken the Rossville Road from Stovall and Adams and had captured the latter.[88] Breckinridge rode to these brigades and was helping them re-form when Polk sent fresh troops under William H.T. Walker to relieve them.[88] Shortly after Breckinridge's men withdrew to the rear, Polk learned that a Union corps under Gordon Granger was coming from Rossville to Thomas' aid.[88] About 3:30 p.m., Polk ordered a major assault on Thomas' position on Snodgrass Hill.[89] Breckinridge again formed his weary men, pushed Thomas' left flank back across the road, and captured part of the Union breastworks while Cleburne broke through Thomas' center and convinced him to retire as night fell.[89]

Many of Bragg's subordinates blamed Bragg for not securing a total victory, while Bragg charged that Hill, Leonidas Polk, and Thomas C. Hindman had disobeyed orders given during the Confederates' pre-battle maneuvering.[90] Insisting that, had his orders been followed, the victory would have been total, Bragg removed all three officers from his command.[90] In response, a dozen Confederate officers – including Hill, Longstreet, Simon Buckner, Cleburne, Preston, and Randall L. Gibson – signed a circular letter to Jefferson Davis demanding Bragg's removal, ostensibly because of his poor health.[91][92] Despite his antipathy for Bragg, Breckinridge was not among the letter's signatories.[91] Both Davis and Heck point out that Breckinridge's concern over his still-outstanding, year-old request for a court of inquiry concerning Bragg's assessment of his performance at Murfreesboro contributed to his decision not to sign the letter.[91][92] This rendered him more palatable to Bragg, who placed him in charge of Hill's former corps until a replacement could be named.[91] Some members of the eastern press erroneously reported that Breckinridge had been promoted to lieutenant general and given permanent command of the corps.[93]

Battles of Lookout Mountain and Missionary Ridge[edit]

Bragg ordered his army to surround the Union force, now under the command of George H. Thomas, at Chattanooga.[91] By late October, he learned that William T. Sherman's Army of the Tennessee and part of a division under Maj. Gen. Josesph Hooker had been ordered to Chattanooga and that Ulysses Grant would command the effort to break Bragg's siege on the city.[94] At an October 31 council of war, Bragg's corps commanders – Breckinridge, Longstreet and Hardee – unanimously discouraged a direct assault on Thomas' position.[95] Instead, Bragg decided to implement a plan suggested by Jefferson Davis, sending Longstreet with two divisions to attack Ambrose Burnside at Knoxville.[95] By this, he hoped to divert troops from Chattanooga to Knoxville, but it also reduced Bragg's numbers at Chattanooga to 36,000 men, compared to Thomas' 60,000.[95] Bragg divided his remaining forces between Breckinridge and Hardee.[91] Breckinridge's nine divisions, numbering about 16,000 men, were charged with defending a 6-mile (9.7 km) stretch between Missionary Ridge and Lookout Mountain.[73][95] Bragg further reduced Breckinridge's numbers on November 22 when he ordered Cleburne's division to aid Longstreet's faltering operation in Knoxville.[95]

On November 24, Hooker attacked Maj. Gen. Carter L. Stevenson's division on Lookout Mountain.[96] Due to heavy fog, Stevenson was unable to utilize his artillery to repulse Hooker's advance.[96] Breckinridge personally led a brigade to Stevenson's relief, but by the time he arrived at 7:30 p.m., he could only facilitate the Confederate withdrawal from the mountain.[96] At a council of war that night, Hardee advised Bragg to withdraw to nearby Chickamauga Station, but Breckinridge prevailed upon Bragg to stay and fight the following day from Missionary Ridge.[96] Bragg anticipated that Sherman, who had crossed the Tennessee River that night, would direct his heaviest assault toward Hardee's corps, and he sent Cheatham and Stevenson from Breckinridge's corps to reinforce Hardee.[97] This left Breckinridge only three regiments to hold the four miles of the ridge from Rossville Gap to Tunnel Hill.[97] Bragg positioned half of each regiment at the base of the ridge and the other half at the crest.[97] Shortly before sunrise on November 25, Bragg ordered Brig. Gen. Joseph Horace Lewis' brigade from Breckinridge's corps to Hardee.[98]

As anticipated, Sherman's initial assault on Missionary Ridge was directed against Hardee's corps on the morning of November 25.[98] Hardee's line held, but by 1:00 p.m., Thomas' four divisions were preparing to charge Breckinridge's center.[98] At the same time, Breckinridge learned that Hooker was approaching his left at Rossville Gap.[98] Believing Hooker represented the greater threat, Breckinridge moved to his left, leaving the center directly under Bragg's command.[98] Acting on Bragg's orders, the troops at the base of the ridge fired only a single volley into Thomas' advancing troops before retreating up the ridge.[99] As they retreated, they blocked the fire of the supporting troops atop the ridge.[73] The entire Confederate center collapsed and was driven from the ridge.[73] Concurrently, Hooker attacked Breckinridge's thinned lines at Rossville Gap, turning his left flank.[100]

Breckinridge's son, Cabell, was captured in the fighting, and Breckinridge himself narrowly escaped the enemy.[73] (Cabell would later re-join his father after being part of a prisoner exchange.)[101] Bragg removed Breckinridge from command, charging that he had been drunk during the battle and, retroactively alledging his drunkenness during the Battle of Murfreesboro.[5][102] Historian Lowell H. Harrison conceded that Breckinridge was known to be fond of whiskey but noted that his ability to drink alcohol without getting drunk was well-known.[102] Harrison, Klotter, Heck, and Davis all concurred that Bragg's charges were unlikely to have been true.[102][62][103]

Service in the Eastern Theater[edit]

Breckinridge was granted a leave from the army beginning on December 15.[103] In January 1864, Mary Boykin Chesnut recorded in her diary that Breckinridge "walked up and down my small drawing-room like a caged lion".[103] Confederate leaders discounted Bragg's charges against Breckinridge, and in February 1864, he was given command of the Department of Southwest Virginia.[5] The ill-defined boundaries of this department encompassed the Virginia and Tennessee Railroad line connecting Bristol, Tennessee, and Lynchburg, Virginia; the mines of Wythe County, Virginia, the Confederacy's primary source of lead for ammunition; and a critical Confederate salt works at Saltville, Virginia.[104] The entire area also provided forage for Robert E. Lee's Army of Northern Virginia.[104] In addition to protecting these important resources, Breckinridge was charged with interposing between Lee's forces and the Union troops in eastern Tennessee.[102]

Taking command on March 5, 1864, Breckinridge immediately began organizing the scattered troops under his command.[103] After a 400-mile (640 km) ride across the area that took most of the month, he determined that he had 6,110 effective soldiers at his disposal.[104] By denying scheduled furloughs, Breckinridge increased his numbers by almost 1,000 by April 20, and at the end of the month, Buckner sent him an additional brigade under Brig. Gen. Gabriel C. Wharton from the Department of East Tennessee.[105] Still, he reported that he was low on arms and rations – his men were grinding corn sent for their horses – and many of his cavalry were dismounted as their horses were taken to forage in distant pastures.[105]

Battle of New Market[edit]

Fearing that Maj. Gen. Franz Sigel was preparing to advance toward Staunton, Virginia, and threaten his left flank, on May 5, Lee ordered Breckinridge to join Brig. Gen. John D. Imboden's cavalry and check Sigel's advance.[105] Assembling the brigades under Wharton and John Echols, Breckinridge headed for Staunton, leaving the remainder of his department under the command of Albert G. Jenkins.[105] Breckinridge and his staff rode into Staunton on May 8, and his infantrymen arrived on May 10 and 11.[105] On May 12, a corps of 261 cadets at the Virginia Military Institute (VMI) joined Breckinridge's command.[106] Sigel had been slowly advancing toward the Confederate position, and by May 15, his men occupied the city of New Market, Virginia.[106] Between Breckinridge's and Imboden's forces, about 4,800 Confederates camped outside the city.[106]

For much of the morning of May 15, Breckinridge anticipated that Sigel would attack, but by noon, no attack materialized, and Breckinridge seized the initiative, driving Sigel's superior force from the city to Bushong's Hill.[106] Breckinridge then personally supervised the advance of his artillery toward the enemy position, stopping frequently to bombard their defenses.[106] By the time Breckinridge's men reached the base of the hill, his artillery had left Sigel's first line of defense in shambles.[107] Within minutes of beginning the charge up Bushong's Hill, almost half of Imboden's 62nd Virginia Mounted Infantry were killed or wounded; the federals also halted the advance of Wharton's 51st Virginia Infantry on Imboden's left.[107] Breckinridge used the VMI cadets – his only reserves – to preserve the shattered line.[107] The cadets withstood Sigel's counterattack, then helped dislodge the Union force from the hill.[107] Breckinridge's men continued their pursuit of Sigel's forces for five miles until their ammunition was spent and the enemy had fortified themselves on Rude's Hill.[107] By 5:00 p.m., Breckinridge's ordnance wagons replenished his ammunition, and his forces resumed their pursuit of Sigel, dislodging them from Rude's Hill and chasing them across the Shenandoah River.[107] The federals crossed the bridge over the river, then destroyed it to prevent Breckinridge's further pursuit.[107] Sigel eventually ended his retreat at Strasburg, Virginia, 32 miles (51 km) from New Market.[108]

Breckinridge suffered 530 casualties in the battle compared to Sigel's 841.[108] Heck notes that although Sigel commanded approximately 2,000 more troops than Breckinridge, Sigel reported to his superiors that he had been outnumbered.[108] Four days later, Sigel was removed from command, replaced by Maj. Gen. David Hunter.[108]

Cold Harbor and Early's raids[edit]

Almost immediately after New Market, Lee called for Breckinridge to help him counter Ulysses S. Grant and George G. Meade's Overland Campaign.[109] Breckinridge and his reduced force of about 2,600 men arrived at Hanover Junction on May 20.[109] During the June 2-3 Battle of Cold Harbor, a cannonball struck Breckinridge's horse.[110] Pinned under the fallen animal for the remainder of the battle, Breckinridge was so severely bruised that he was unable to walk or ride for days.[109]

Breckinridge was still recovering from his injuries Lee sent him to take command of the Confederate survivors of David Hunter's victory at the Battle of Piedmont.[109] He boarded a train with a small force and arrived at Rockfish Gap on June 10.[109] Integrating the survivors of Piedmont into his command, he proceeded to Lynchburg, arriving on October 16.[109] At Bragg's suggestion, Lee sent Jubal A. Early's 8,000-man II Corps to reinforce Breckinridge.[109] Early arrived on June 17, just in time to check Hunter's attack on the city.[111] Hunter erroneously believed he was outnumbered and began a long retreat to Lewisburg, Virginia on June 19.[111] Still unable to walk, Breckinridge was now able to ride a horse, and he joined Early's three-day, 60-mile (97 km) pursuit of Hunter, which ended when Hunter crossed the mountains near Roanoke.[111]

After resting at Roanoke, Early decided to lead an expedition against Washington, D.C..[112] At Staunton on June 27, Early placed Breckinridge in command of a 6,800-man corps containing some of his own men and a division under John B. Gordon.[111] Prior to Early's arrival on the outskirts of Washington, D.C., federal forces made only one significant attempt to halt his progress, the July 9 Battle of Monocacy.[111] During the battle, Breckinridge's corps was able to turn the federals' left flank, forcing their retreat.[111]

Reaching Washington, D.C. on July 11, Early determined to attack the next morning, but overnight, two additional Union corps fortified the city, and Early determined to retreat to the Shenandoah Valley.[112] For the remainder of July and August, Early and Breckinridge diverted Union forces from Lee's position and repeatedly interfered with federal supply lines by destroying parts of the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad.[112] Philip Sheridan, assigned to the Union forces in that region in late August, ended Breckinridge and Early's activities on September 19, 1864 at the Third Battle of Winchester.[112] The battle went poorly for the Confederates all morning, and after receiving inaccurate reports that Sheridan had turned his right flank, Early ordered a withdrawal.[112] After learning that his intelligence had been faulty, Early tried to cancel the order, but the retreat could not be reversed, despite Breckinridge and Gordon's attempt to rally the troops.[112] Breckinridge's division suffered heavy casualties in the fighting.[113] Early's men fell back to Fisher's Hill.[114]

Return to southwest Virginia[edit]

Breckinridge was again given charge of the Department of Southwest Virginia after the death of John Hunt Morgan on September 4, 1864.[5] The Department was undermanned and lacking resources.[113] On October 2, 1864, Breckinridge participated in the Confederate victory over Stephen G. Burbridge at the First Battle of Saltville.[115] Several black soldiers were among the wounded left behind by Burbridge's fleeing army, and on the morning of October 3, some of the Confederates under Breckinridge's command began executing them.[110] Over 100 black soldiers were killed before Breckinridge was alerted to the incident and rushed to stop it.[115]

In mid-November 1864, Breckinridge met a much larger Union force under Brig. Gen. Alvan Gillem at the Battle of Bull's Gap.[116] Despite being outnumbered, he was able to repel Gillem's men almost as far as Knoxville.[116] In December, Breckinridge learned that forces under Maj. Gen. George Stoneman was approaching northeastern Tennessee from Knoxville and Cumberland Gap.[116] He anticipated an attack on Confederate salt works near Marion, Virginia.[113] With only 1,200 men to check the attack by over 7,000 federals, Breckinridge took to the offensive, checking both federal lines.[116] After two days of fighting, Breckinridge's men had exhausted their ammunition and fell back.[116] Re-supplied three days later, he resumed pursuit of Stoneman, who was now also low on ammunition.[116] He drove Stoneman from the area, but not before the federals destroyed an important rail line and supply depots at Abingdon and Bristol and damaged the salt works and lead mines.[116]

On February 7, 1865, Breckinridge accepted Confederate President Jefferson Davis's appointment as Confederate Secretary of War, ending his military service.[6]

Assessment of performance[edit]

By his subordinates[edit]

Historian James Klotter recorded that Breckinridge's "chief asset lay not in his strategical abilities but in his remarkable rapport with the soldiers.[117] Although his son, Cabell, served as Breckinridge's aide during much of the war, subordinates noted that he was treated no differently than any other soldier.[31] At Shiloh, an officer on Breckinridge's staff remarked that his commander was "the most impressive-looking man I ever had seen".[118] C.D. Kirk, an onlooker during the Battle of Baton Rouge, wrote that "[Breckinridge's] presence had a magical effect upon the men. There was no danger he did not share with them."[38]

On March 19, 1863, Breckinridge chose to honor the 20th Tennessee Infantry Regiment for gallantry at Stones River by presenting them with a Confederate battle flag that his wife, Mary, had made from her wedding dress.[77] A soldier in the regiment wrote in his diary that, "If a regiment ever worshipped a division commander, the Twentieth Tennessee idolized Gen. John C. Breckinridge."[77] When Breckinridge was transferred from Bragg's command to Johnston's at Vicksburg in May 1863, Bragg retained the Twentieth Tennessee at Tullahoma.[119] Fearing the effects of the Mississippi summer on his Kentucky troops, Breckinridge received Bragg's permission to take a regiment of Mississippians instead, but the Kentuckians requested to remain with their leader rather than remaining with Bragg.[119] According to a diarist in the 9th Kentucky Infantry, "They said where thou goest, there we will go also."[119][note 1] Heck wrote that this decision was made even in light of the belief that Bragg was preparing another invasion of Kentucky that could secure it for the Confederacy.[120]

An observer at the Battle of Chickamauga noted that, riding defiantly among the falling artillery shells, Breckinridge appeared to be a "godlike hero".[101] A member of the Orphan Brigade recalled that, as Breckinridge helped them re-form after being repulsed by Thomas' fortified troops, "I shall never forget his stately presence. He sat erect on his horse, his whole body seeming to indicate attention to the business on hand."[121] After the battle, another soldier from that brigade wrote, "[Breckinridge's] bearing was all my admiration could desire. I cannot speak of his behavior in higher terms than to say he suffered none in comparison with the gallant Cleburne."[88] Years after the war, when someone told John Beatty – one of Breckinridge's opponents at Chickamauga – that Beatty was the handsomest mounted figure he had ever seen, Beatty responded, "You certainly never saw the Confederate General John C. Breckinridge on a horse."[121]

One of Breckinridge's subordinates at New Market believed that, in addition to showing great courage, Breckinridge "had a keen eye to discern the strong and weak points of the enemy's position, skill in using his forces to the best advantage, and a celerity of movement which reminded me of Jackson".[108][note 2] A Richmond newspaper also saw similarities to Jackson, noting "He marches rapidly and whips the enemy in detail".[109]

When Breckinridge was transferred to the Department of Southwest Virginia in February 1864, his troops again requested to remain with their commander, despite the fact that their most recent engagement had been the debacle at Missionary Ridge.[120] Before Breckinridge left for his new post, his subordinates presented him with a dress sword bearing the inscription, "A mark of esteem and admiration for their much loved Commander".[120]

By his peers[edit]

After Breckinridge's first major engagement at Shiloh, P.G.T. Beauregard wrote that he "displayed great aptitude and sagacity and handled his brigade with skill and judgment".[122] Earl Van Dorn, who ordered the attack on Baton Rouge, praised Breckinridge's "skill and intrepidity" during that battle, and on the motion of Kentucky Confederate Congressman James William Moore, he received the Thanks of Congress for his performance in that battle.[43] After the Confederate victory at Cold Harbor, John Brown Gordon wrote that Breckinridge "exhibited in marked degree the characteristics of a great commander. He was fertile in resource, and enlisted and held the confidence and affection of his men, while he inspired them with enthusiasm and ardor. Under fire and in extreme peril he was strikingly courageous, alert, and self-poised."[5] Robert E. Lee briefly congratulated Breckinridge after his victory over Franz Sigel at New Market, writing "I offer you the thanks of this army for your victory over General Sigel."[108] Imboden's praise was more effusive; on May 19, he closed a report on Sigel's retreat: "May new honors crown you in all the future is the sincere with of myself and little command, whose hearts you have so completely won."[108]

The assessment of Basil Duke, who was with Breckinridge for much of the war, was mixed.[113] Duke wrote that Breckinridge's "commanding presence" and "persuasive eloquence" were accompanied by "a rare military aptitude".[113] Duke believed that Breckinridge possessed good judgment and was "seldom at fault in any matter upon which he was adequately informed.[113] While noting that "When thoroughly aroused he acted with tremendous vigour... He was at his best when the occasion seemed desperate," Duke also felt that he was occasionally affected by "a strange indolence" and "needed to be spurred to action".[5]

Breckinridge maintained good relations with almost every Confederate general except Braxton Bragg.[5] Attached to a notice of Breckinridge's promotion to major general after the Battle of Shiloh were the words "Nobly won upon the field, With the hearty congratulations of Braxton Bragg."[15] In his request that Breckinridge join the planned invasion of Kentucky, Bragg estimated that Breckinridge's presence would be worth an extra division in his army, adding "I hope to see your eyes beam again at the command 'Forward' as they did at Shiloh, in the midst of our greatest success".[45]

On September 17, however, Bragg wrote to Jefferson Davis complaining that he desperately needed the 15,000 guns Breckinridge was supposed to bring from Knoxville, but William C. Davis pointed out that Bragg did not yet have the men to utilize them.[123] Later, Bragg blamed his inability to recruit Kentuckians to his army on Breckinridge's late arrival, writing that, "The failure of Genl. Breckinridge to carry out his part of my program has seriously embarrassed me, and moreover the whole campaign."[123] Klotter noted that Breckinridge was not at fault, and Davis recorded that despite Van Dorn's interference and the hasty and haphazard planning for Breckinridge's move, Breckinridge cover the 1,100 miles (1,800 km) between Jackson, Mississippi, and Knoxville, Tennessee, in only 14 days, utilizing seven different railroads in his attempt to join Bragg's invasion.[62][123]

Heck recorded that relations between Bragg and Breckinridge quickly deteriorated after Bragg arrived in Murfreesboro in late November 1862.[60] Bragg resented Breckinridge's close ties to Confederate generals, including Joseph E. Johnston, Wade Hampton, John B. Floyd, and William Preston, all of whom were relatives.[117] In the face of heavy newspaper criticism after the Battle of Stones River, Bragg wrote to his corps and division commanders, "I shall retire without a regret if I find I have lost the good opinion of my generals."[124] When Hardee, Cleburne, and Breckinridge replied that Bragg did not have the confidence of the Army of Tennessee, Bragg concluded that Breckinridge was the leader of a clique that was determined to ruin him.[125][62] Bragg did not resign, as promised, but spent the middle part of 1863 removing each brigade from Breckinridge's division and replacing it with a new one.[62]

By historians[edit]

Both Harrison and the 1993 Encyclopedia of the Confederacy called Breckinridge one of the best "political generals" in the Confederate Army.[5][126] In his final assessment, Heck concludes that "no Confederate major general who was not a professional soldier before 1861 made a more creditable record".[120]

Harrison wrote that Breckinridge's best military performances were made while commanding a small, independent force or a formal division, noting that his most resounding defeat occurred when he was in charge of a large corps at Missionary Ridge.[126] Heck noted that the battlefield at New Market, regarded as Breckinridge's best performance of the war, was small enough to allow him to assess the entire battle at once and personally rally his entire force.[108] While noting that Franz Sigel, his New Market opponent, was not an effective officer, Heck credits Breckinridge for using his artillery in an unconventional manner in the approach to Bushong's Hill and for pursuing the enemy as long as possible, which was one of Bragg's notable failures.[127]

Breckinridge biographer William C. Davis argued that, at Shiloh, Breckinridge spent too much time personally leading attacks and carrying orders, but biographer Frank H. Heck countered that this was true of most of the Confederate generals except Beauregard.[128] Davis went on to note that, after Breckinridge's promotion to major general, he increased the size of his staff and showed improvement in delegating tasks in his next battle at Baton Rouge.[28] Davis faulted Breckinridge for not communicating with Confederate cavalry commanders prior to his charge on Van Cleve's position at Stones River even though he knew Bragg had ordered the cavalry to support the attack.[68] Chickamauga, according to Davis, was "Breckinridge's finest performance as a division commander, and the only occasion of the war when his action would exert a decisive influence on a major battle".[87] Klotter praised Breckinridge's leadership at Baton Rouge and Chickamauga, but noted the tactical mistakes he made at Shiloh and Stones River.[117]

Notes[edit]

  1. ^ An allusion to Ruth 1:16
  2. ^ An allusion to Confederate general Thomas "Stonewall" Jackson

References[edit]

  1. ^ a b c Heck, p. 104
  2. ^ Davis, p. 296
  3. ^ Harrison, p. 130
  4. ^ a b Harrison and Klotter, p. 192
  5. ^ a b c d e f g h i j "John C. Breckinridge". Encyclopedia of the Confederacy
  6. ^ a b Klotter in The Kentucky Encyclopedia, p. 118
  7. ^ a b Heck, p. 107
  8. ^ Davis, p. 294
  9. ^ Davis, pp. 294–295
  10. ^ Davis, p. 295
  11. ^ a b c Davis, p. 297
  12. ^ a b c d Davis, p. 299
  13. ^ Davis, p. 300
  14. ^ a b Davis, p. 301
  15. ^ a b c Harrison, p. 131
  16. ^ Davis, p. 302
  17. ^ a b c d Davis, p. 303
  18. ^ a b Davis, p. 304
  19. ^ a b c d e Heck, p. 109
  20. ^ Davis, p. 307
  21. ^ Davis, p. 309
  22. ^ Davis, p. 311
  23. ^ a b c Davis, p. 312
  24. ^ Davis, pp. 312–313, 315
  25. ^ Klotter in The Breckinridges of Kentucky, p. 121
  26. ^ Davis, p. 315
  27. ^ a b Davis, p. 313
  28. ^ a b c d e f g h Davis, p. 316
  29. ^ a b c d e f Harrison, p. 132
  30. ^ Davis, pp. 316–317
  31. ^ a b c d Klotter in The Breckinridges of Kentucky, p. 122
  32. ^ Davis, p. 318
  33. ^ a b Ballard, p. 64
  34. ^ Davis, p. 319
  35. ^ Davis, pp. 319–320
  36. ^ Davis, p. 320
  37. ^ Davis, p. 321
  38. ^ a b c Davis, p. 322
  39. ^ a b c d Ballard, p. 66
  40. ^ a b Heck, p. 111
  41. ^ Ballard, p. 65
  42. ^ Davis, p. 323
  43. ^ a b Davis, p. 324
  44. ^ Heck, p. 112
  45. ^ a b c d Davis, p. 326
  46. ^ Bearss, p. 183
  47. ^ a b c d e f Bearss, p. 184
  48. ^ Davis, p. 328
  49. ^ a b Bearss, p. 185
  50. ^ Bearss, pp. 190–191
  51. ^ Bearss, pp. 188, 192
  52. ^ Bearss, p. 195
  53. ^ a b Bearss, p. 196
  54. ^ a b Bearss, p. 199
  55. ^ Bearss, p. 200
  56. ^ a b Bearss, p. 202
  57. ^ Bearss, p. 203
  58. ^ Bearss, p. 205
  59. ^ a b Bearss, p. 208
  60. ^ a b Heck, p. 113
  61. ^ a b c d e Heck, p. 114
  62. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Klotter, p. 125
  63. ^ a b c d e f g Harrison, p. 133
  64. ^ a b Davis, p. 336
  65. ^ Davis, pp. 336–337
  66. ^ Davis, p. 338
  67. ^ a b c d Davis, p. 340
  68. ^ a b Davis, p. 341
  69. ^ Davis, pp. 344–345
  70. ^ a b c d Davis, p. 345
  71. ^ a b c Davis, p. 348
  72. ^ Davis, p. 347
  73. ^ a b c d e f g h Harrison, p. 134
  74. ^ a b c Davis, p. 352
  75. ^ Davis, p. 359
  76. ^ Davis, p. 363
  77. ^ a b c Davis, p. 364
  78. ^ Davis, pp. 365–366
  79. ^ a b c d e Davis, p. 366
  80. ^ a b c d e Davis, p. 367
  81. ^ a b Davis, p. 368
  82. ^ a b Davis, p. 369
  83. ^ a b c Davis, p. 370
  84. ^ a b c Davis, p. 371
  85. ^ Davis, p. 372
  86. ^ Davis, pp. 373–374
  87. ^ a b c d Davis, p. 376
  88. ^ a b c d Davis, p. 377
  89. ^ a b Davis, p. 378
  90. ^ a b Heck, p. 116
  91. ^ a b c d e f Heck, p. 117
  92. ^ a b Davis, p. 381
  93. ^ Davis, p. 383
  94. ^ Davis, p. 384
  95. ^ a b c d e Davis, p. 385
  96. ^ a b c d Davis, p. 386
  97. ^ a b c Davis, p. 387
  98. ^ a b c d e Davis, p. 388
  99. ^ Davis, pp. 387-388
  100. ^ Heck, p. 118
  101. ^ a b Harrison, p. 123
  102. ^ a b c d Harrison, p. 135
  103. ^ a b c d Heck, p. 119
  104. ^ a b c Heck, p. 120
  105. ^ a b c d e Heck, p. 121
  106. ^ a b c d e Heck, p. 122
  107. ^ a b c d e f g Heck, p. 123
  108. ^ a b c d e f g h Heck, p. 124
  109. ^ a b c d e f g h Heck, p. 125
  110. ^ a b Klotter, p. 127
  111. ^ a b c d e f Heck, p. 126
  112. ^ a b c d e f Heck, p. 127
  113. ^ a b c d e f Harrison, p. 136
  114. ^ Heck, p. 128
  115. ^ a b Klotter, p. 128
  116. ^ a b c d e f g Heck, p. 129
  117. ^ a b c Klotter, p. 124
  118. ^ Klotter, p. 123
  119. ^ a b c Davis, p. 365
  120. ^ a b c d Heck, p. 130
  121. ^ a b Davis, p. 375
  122. ^ Davis, p. 314
  123. ^ a b c Davis, p. 327
  124. ^ Davis, p. 349
  125. ^ Davis, pp. 349–350
  126. ^ a b Harrison, p. 137
  127. ^ Heck, pp. 123–124
  128. ^ Heck, p. 110

Bibliography[edit]

  • Ballard, Michael B. (2004). Vicksburg: The Campaign That Opened the Mississippi. Chapel Hill, North Carolina: University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 0807828939.
  • Bearss, Edwin C. (1962). "General Breckinridge Leads the Confederate Advance into Middle Tennessee". The Register of the Kentucky Historical Society. 60 (3). {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  • Davis, William C. (2010). Breckinridge: Statesman, Soldier, Symbol. Lexington, Kentucky: The University Press of Kentucky. ISBN 0807100684.
  • Harrison, Lowell H. (1973). "John C. Breckinridge: Nationalist, Confederate, Kentuckian". Filson Club History Quarterly. 47 (2). Retrieved November 22, 2012. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  • Harrison, Lowell H. (1997). A New History of Kentucky. Lexington, Kentucky: The University Press of Kentucky. ISBN 0-8131-2008-X. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  • Heck, Frank H. (1976). Proud Kentuckian: John C. Breckinridge, 1821–1875. Lexington, Kentucky: The University Press of Kentucky. ISBN 0813102170.
  • Richard Nelson Current, ed. (1993). "John C. Breckinridge". Encyclopedia of the Confederacy. New York City, New York: Simon & Schuster. Retrieved November 20, 2012.
  • Klotter, James C. (1986). The Breckinridges of Kentucky. Lexington, Kentucky: The University Press of Kentucky. ISBN 0-8131-9165-3.
  • Klotter, James C. (1992). "Breckinridge, John Cabell". In John E. Kleber (ed.). The Kentucky Encyclopedia. Associate editors: Thomas D. Clark, Lowell H. Harrison, and James C. Klotter. Lexington, Kentucky: The University Press of Kentucky. ISBN 0-8131-1772-0. Retrieved November 8, 2012.
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