Alcoholic beverage

A selection of various kinds of alcoholic beverage.

The interior of a liquor store in the United States. The global alcoholic drinks industry is expected to exceed $1 trillion this year.

An alcoholic beverage is a drink that typically contains 3% – 40% ethanol (commonly called alcohol). Alcoholic beverages are divided into three classes: beers, wines, and spirits (distilled beverages). They are legally consumed in most countries around the world. More than 100 countries have laws regulating their production, sale, and consumption.

Alcoholic beverages have been produced and consumed by humans since the Neolithic Era, from hunter-gatherer peoples to nation-states.

Food and drink

Food energy

Alcoholic beverages are a source of food energy. The USDA uses a figure of 6.93 kcal per gram of alcohol (5.47 kcal per ml) for calculating food energy. In addition to alcohol, many alcoholic beverages contain carbohydrates. For example, beer usually contains 10–15 g of carbohydrates (40–60 kcal) per 12 US fluid ounces (350 ml). However, aside from the direct effect of its caloric content, alcohol is known to potentiate the insulin response of the human body to glucose, which, in essence, "instructs" the body to convert consumed carbohydrates into fat and to suppress carbohydrate and fat oxidation.

Apéritifs and digestifs

An apéritif is any alcoholic beverage usually served before a meal to stimulate the appetite while a digestif is any alcoholic beverage served after a meal, which however does not aid its putative digestion. Fortified wine, liqueur, and dry champagne are common apéritifs. Because apéritifs are served before dining, the emphasis is usually on dry rather than sweet.

Flavoring

Pure ethanol tastes bitter to humans, slightly fewer people also describe it as sweet. However, ethanol (alcohol) it is also a moderately good solvent for many fatty substances and essential oils. This attribute facilitates the use of flavoring and coloring compounds in alcoholic beverages as a taste mask, especially in distilled beverages. Flavors may be naturally present in the beverage’s raw material. Beer and wine may be flavored before fermentation. Spirits may be flavored before, during, or after distillation; Sometimes flavor is obtained by allowing the beverage to stand for months or years in oak barrels, usually American or French oak. A few brands of spirits have fruit or herbs inserted into the bottle at the time of bottling.

Alcohol measurement

Alcohol concentrations

The concentration of alcohol in a beverage is usually stated as the percentage of alcohol by volume  (ABV, the number of ml of pure ethanol in 100 ml of beverage) or as proof. In the United States, proof is twice the percentage of alcohol by volume at 60 degrees Fahrenheit (e.g. 80 proof = 40% ABV). Degrees proof were formerly used in the United Kingdom, where 100 degrees proof was equivalent to 57.1% ABV. Historically, this was the most dilute spirit that would sustain the combustion of gunpowder.

Ordinary distillation cannot produce alcohol of more than 95.6% ABV (191.2 proof) because at that point alcohol is an azeotrope with water. A spirit which contains a very high level of alcohol and does not contain any added flavoring is commonly called a neutral spirit. Generally, any distilled alcoholic beverage of 170 proof or higher is considered to be a neutral spirit.

Most yeasts cannot reproduce when the concentration of alcohol is higher than about 18%, so that is the practical limit for the strength of fermented beverages such as wine, beer, and sake. However, some strains of yeast have been developed that can reproduce in solutions of up to 25% ABV.

Typical alcohol levels

Beers	ABV
Pilsner	3–6%
ESB (Bitter)	3–6%
Lager	4-5%
Porter	4-5%
Brown Ale	4-6%
IPA (India Pale Ale)	6-7%
Stout	5-10%
Barley Wine	11–15%
Wines	ABV
Sparkling Wine	8–12%
Table Wine	9–14%
Retsina	10-11%
Dry White	10-12%
Cabernet	11-14%
Fortified wines	ABV
Sherry	17–22%
Marsala Wine	15-17%
Madeira Wine	15-18%
Vermouth	15-18%
Port Wine	16-20%
Bum Wine	15-20%
Spirits	ABV
Light Liqueurs	15-25%
Vodka/Whiskey/Rum	40%
Cask Strength Whiskey	60%
Absinthe	55–90%
Neutral Grain Spirits	95%
Rectified Spirits	96%
Absolute Alcohol	96-98%
Other drinks	ABV
Fruit Juice	< 0.1%
Alcopops	3-7%
Wine Breezers/Coolers	4-7%
Cider	4–8%

Serving measure

Shot sizes

Shot sizes varies significantly from country to country. In the United Kingdom, serving size in licensed premises is regulated under the Weights and Measures Act (1985). A single serving size of spirits (gin, whisky, rum, and vodka) are sold in 25 ml or 35 ml quantities or multiples thereof. Beer is typically served in pints (568 ml), but is also served in half-pints or third-pints. In Israel, a single serving size of spirits is about twice as much, 50 or 60 mL.

The shape of a glass can have a significant effect on how much one pours. A Cornell University study of students and bartenders' pouring showed both groups pour more into short, wide glasses than into tall, slender glasses. Aiming to pour one shot of alcohol (1.5 ounces or 44.3 ml), students on average poured 45.5 ml & 59.6 ml (30% more) respectively into the tall and short glasses. The bartenders scored similarly, on average pouring 20.5% more into the short glasses. More experienced bartenders were more accurate, pouring 10.3% less alcohol than less experienced bartenders. Practice reduced the tendency of both groups to over pour for tall, slender glasses but not for short, wide glasses. These misperceptions are attributed to two perceptual biases: (1) Estimating that tall, slender glasses have more volume than shorter, wider glasses; and (2) Over focusing on the height of the liquid and disregarding the width.

Standard drinks

See also: Alcohol equivalence

A "standard drink" of hard liquor does not necessarily reflect a typical serving size, such as seen here

A standard drink is a notional drink that contains a specified amount of pure alcohol. The standard drink is used in many countries to quantify alcohol intake. It is usually expressed as a measure of beer, wine, or spirits. One standard drink always contains the same amount of alcohol regardless of serving size or the type of alcoholic beverage.

The standard drink varies significantly from country to country. For example, it is 7.62 ml (6 grams) of alcohol in Austria, but in Japan it is 25 ml (19.75 grams).

In the United Kingdom, there is a system of units of alcohol which serves as a guideline for alcohol consumption. A single unit of alcohol is defined as 10 ml. The number of units present in a typical drink is sometimes printed on bottles. The system is intended as an aid to people who are regulating the amount of alcohol they drink; it is not used to determine serving sizes.

In the United States, the standard drink contains 0.6 US fluid ounces (18 ml) of alcohol. This is approximately the amount of alcohol in a 12-US-fluid-ounce (350 ml) glass of beer, a 5-US-fluid-ounce (150 ml) glass of wine, or a 1.5-US-fluid-ounce (44 ml) glass of a 40% ABV (80 US proof) spirit.

Fermented beverages

Beer

Main article: Beer

See also: Beer styles and List of beer styles

Kriek, a variety of beer brewed with cherries

Beer is at present the most consumed alcoholic beverage in the world,....

Beer is a beverage fermented from grain mash. It is made from barley or a blend of several grains. If the fermented mash is distilled, then the beverage is a spirit.

Cider

Main article: Cider

Cider or cyder (/ˈsaɪdər/ SY-dər) is a fermented alcoholic beverage made from any fruit juice; apple juice (traditional and most common), peaches, pears ("Perry" cider) or other fruit. Cider alcohol content varies from 1.2% ABV to 8.5% or more in traditional English ciders. In some regions, cider may be called "apple wine".

Wine

Main article: Wine

See also: Wine and health

Wine is a fermented beverage produced from grapes. Wine involves a longer fermentation process than beer and also a long aging process (months or years), resulting in an alcohol content of 9%–16% ABV. Sparkling wine can be made by means of a secondary fermentation.

Beverages called "fruit wines" are made from fruits such as plums, cherries, or apples. The kind of fruit must be specified on the label.

Congeners

Fermentation with the stems, seeds, and skins of the grapes will increase the tannin content of the wine.

See also: Congener (alcohol), Wine chemistry, and Hangover

In the alcoholic beverages industry, congeners are substances produced during fermentation.

These substances include small amounts of chemicals such as occasionally desired other alcohols, like propanol and 3-methyl-1-butanol, but also compounds that are never desired like, acetone, acetaldehyde, esters, glycols, and ethyl acetate. Congeners are responsible for most of the taste and aroma of distilled alcoholic beverages, and contribute to the taste of non-distilled drinks. It has been suggested that these substances contribute to the symptoms of a hangover.

Tannins are congeners found in wine in the presence of phenolic compounds. Wine tannins add bitterness, have a drying sensation, taste herbaceous and are often described as astringent. Wine tannins adds balance, complexity, structure and makes a wine last longer, so they play an important role in the aging of wine.

Distilled beverages

Main article: Distilled beverage

These flaming cocktails illustrate that high-proof alcohol will readily catch fire and burn.

A distilled beverage, spirit, or liquor is an alcoholic beverage produced by distilling (i.e., concentrating by distillation) ethanol produced by means of fermenting grain, fruit, or vegetables. Unsweetened, distilled, alcoholic beverages that have an alcohol content of at least 20% ABV are called spirits. For the most common distilled beverages, such as whiskey and vodka, the alcohol content is around 40%. The term hard liquor is used in North America to distinguish distilled beverages from undistilled ones (implicitly weaker). Vodka, gin, baijiu, tequila, whiskey, brandy, and soju are examples of distilled beverages. Distilling concentrates the alcohol and eliminates some of the congeners. Freeze distillation concentrates ethanol along with methanol and fusel alcohols (fermentation by-products partially removed by distillation) in applejack. Paracelsus gave alcohol its modern name, which is derived from an Arabic word that means “finely divided” (a reference to distillation).

Fortified wine is wine, such as port or sherry, to which a distilled beverage (usually brandy) has been added. Fortified wine is distinguished from spirits made from wine in that spirits are produced by means of distillation, while fortified wine is simply wine that has had a spirit added to it. Many different styles of fortified wine have been developed, including port, sherry, madeira, marsala, commandaria, and the aromatized wine vermouth.

Rectified spirit

Rectified spirit, also called "neutral grain spirit," is alcohol which has been purified by means of "rectification" (i.e., repeated distillation). The term "neutral" refers to the spirit's lacking the flavor that would have been present if the mash ingredients had been distilled to a lower level of alcoholic purity. Rectified spirit also lacks any flavoring added to it after distillation (as is done, for example, with gin). Other kinds of spirits, such as whiskey, are distilled to a lower alcohol percentage in order to preserve the flavor of the mash.

Rectified spirit is a clear, colorless, flammable liquid that may contain as much as 95% ABV. It is often used for medicinal purposes. It may be a grain spirit or it may be made from other plants. It is used in mixed drinks, liqueurs, and tinctures, but also as a household solvent.

Drug

See also: Alternative psychoactive alcohol use

Results of the ISCD 2010 study ranking the levels of damage caused by drugs, in the opinion of drug-harm experts.

Recreational

Ethanol (simply called alcohol) is a psychoactive drug primarily found in alcoholic beverages. Alcohol is one of the most commonly abused drugs in the world (Meropol, 1996) often used for self-medication, and as recreational drug use.

Since ancient times, people around the world have been drinking alcoholic beverages. Reasons for drinking alcoholic beverages vary and include:

• Recreational purposes: Anxiolytic, and euphoric effects
• Artistic inspiration
• Putative aphrodisiac effects
• Medical purposes

In countries that have a drinking culture, social stigma may cause many people not to view alcohol as a drug because it is an important part of social events. In these countries, many young binge drinkers prefer to call themselves hedonists rather than binge drinkers or recreational drug users. Undergraduate students often position themselves outside the categories of "serious" or "anti-social" drinkers. However, about 40 percent of college students in the United States could be considered alcoholics according to new criteria in Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders 5 but most college binge drinkers and drug users don't develop lifelong problems.

Controversial entheogen

See also: Entheogen § Controversial_entheogens

Some religions forbid, discourage, or restrict the drinking of alcoholic beverages for various reasons. These include Islam, Jainism, Sikhism, the Bahá'í Faith, the Church of God In Christ, The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, the Seventh-day Adventist Church, the Church of Christ, Scientist, the United Pentecostal Church International, Theravada, most Mahayana schools of Buddhism, some Protestant denominations of Christianity, some sects of Taoism (Five Precepts (Taoism) and Ten Precepts (Taoism)), and some sects of Hinduism. In some regions with a dominant religion the production, sale, and consumption of alcoholic beverages is forbidden to everybody, regardless of religion. For instance, some Islamic states, including member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation, such as Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Brunei, Iran, Kuwait, Libya, Saudi Arabia, Sudan, and Yemen, prohibit alcoholic beverages because they are forbidden by Islam.

In some religions alcoholic beverages are used for ritual purposes. For example, the Roman Catholic Church uses wine in the celebration of the Eucharist; in Judaism kosher wine is used in holidays and rituals.

Carnival in the Netherlands is historically a Roman Catholic feast which is well known for its excessive drinking of alcohol.

Effects

Main articles: Alcohol and health and Ethanol § Human consumption

2004 data of alcohol consumption per capita (age 15 or older), per year, by country, in liters of pure alcohol.

Short-term effects of alcohol consumption include intoxication and dehydration. Long-term effects of alcohol include alcoholism, malnutrition, chronic pancreatitis, alcoholic liver disease, cancer and damage to the central nervous system and peripheral nervous system. IARC list ethanol in alcoholic beverages as Group 1 carcinogens and arguments "There is sufficient evidence for the carcinogenicity of acetaldehyde (the major metabolite of ethanol) in experimental animals.".

Alcoholic beverages contain calories, which may contribute to an increase in body weight (see beer belly). Each gram of alcohol provides 7.1 kcal, and each milliliter provides 5.6 kcal.

Alcohols

In nature all alcohols act as psychoactive drugs which vary in potency and effects. Excessive concentrations of some alcohols (other than ethanol) may cause off-flavors, sometimes described as "spicy", "hot", or "solvent-like".

Some beverages, such as rum, whisky (especially Bourbon), incompletely rectified vodka (e.g. Siwucha), and traditional ales and ciders, are expected to have relatively high concentrations of non-hazardous aroma alcohols as part of their flavor profile; European legislation demands minimum content of higher alcohols in certain distilled beverages (spirits) to give them their expected distinct flavour. However, in other beverages, such as Korn, vodka, and lagers, the presence of other alcohols than ethanol is considered fusel alcohols.

Chemical alcohol classification	Simple or higher (consumable) alcohol	IUPAC nomenclature	Common name	Alcohol by volume (ABV)	% intoxication by alcoholic beverage (Typical alcohol content / Typical alcohol content x Content of tot. alcohol x Potency compared to EtOH)	Color/Form	Odor	Taste	Moderate intoxicating loading dose	BAC poisoning	LD50 in rat, oral	Therapeutic index (Potency compared to EtOH/EtOH LD50:LD50 ratio)	Potency compared to EtOH	EtOH LD50:LD50 ratio
Primary	Simple	2-phenylethanol	Phenethyl alcohol	0.1% in non-yeasted cider (Kieser 1964): 100 mg/100 mL	?	?	Intense odour of roses	Burning	?	?	1790 mg/kg	?	?	?
Primary	Simple	Ethanol	EtOH	Up to 95.6% in rectified spirit	-	Clear, colorless, very mobile liquid	Mild, rather pleasant; like wine or whiskey. Weak, ethereal, vinous odor.	Burning	20-50 mL/40%	0.4%	7060 mg/kg	-	-	-
Primary	Simple	Propan-1-ol	Propanol	2.8% (mean) in Jamaican rum: 2384–3130 mg/100 mL. Up to 3500 mg/L (0.35%) in spirits.	8.4% (40/40×0.028×3)	Colorless liquid	Similar to ethanol	Characteristic ripe, fruity flavor. Burning taste	?	?	1870 mg/kg	0.8 (mean): 0.5-1.1	3 (mean): 2-4	3.8
Primary	Simple	Tryptophol	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?
Primary	Higher	2-Methyl-1-propanol	2M1P	0.9% (mean) in Rye mash cistern room: 534–1197 mg/100 mL	?	Colorless, oily liquid. Clear, colorless, refractive, mobile liquid.	Suffocating odor of fusel oil. Slightly suffocating; nonresidual alcoholic. Sweet, musty odor	Sweet whiskey taste	?	?	2460 mg/kg	?	?	?
Primary	Higher	3-methyl-1-butanol	3M1B	1.5% (mean) in French Brandy: 859–2108 mg/100 mL	?	Oily, clear liquid. Colorless liquid.	Characteristic, disagreeable odor.	Pungent, repulsive taste	?	?	1300 mg/kg	?	?	5.4
Secondary	Higher	2-Methyl-1-butanol	2M1B	1.2% (mean) in Bourbon: 910–1390 mg/100 mL	?	Oily, clear liquid. Colorless liquid	Characteristic, disagreeable odor.	Pungent, repulsive taste	?	?	4170 mg/kg	?	?	1.7
Tertiary	Higher	2-Methyl-2-butanol	2M2B	0.07% in beer: 70 mg/100 mL (see tert-Pentyl alcohol in ref) Found in cassava fermented beverages	0.14% (5/5×0.0007×20)	Colorless liquid	Characteristic odor. Camphor odor	Burning taste	2.0-4.0 gram	?	1000 mg/kg	2.8	20	7.1
Tertiary	Higher	2-Methylpropan-2-ol	2M2P	Identified, not quantified, in beer	?	Colorless liquid or solid (crystals) (above 78 degrees F)	Camphor-like odor	?	?	?	2743 mg/kg	?	?	2.6

Tragedies

In 2005 a mother infanticided her month-old baby in a microwave oven. China Arnold claimed to be under the influence of alcohol and Galbraith testified that Arnold told him during his initial questioning: "If I hadn't gotten so drunk, I guess my baby wouldn't have died.". On May 20, 2011, Arnold was sentenced to life in prison without parole. Her attorney says they will appeal the decision.

In November 2011, Rehtaeh Parsons, then 15, allegedly went with a friend to a home in which she was reportedly raped by 4 teenage boys. The teenagers were drinking vodka at a small party. Parsons had little memory of the event, except that at one point she vomited. While a boy was allegedly raping her, the incident was photographed and the photo became widespread in Parsons' school and town in three days. Afterwards, many in school called Parsons a "slut" and she received texts and Facebook messages from people requesting to have sex with her. The alleged rape went unreported for several days until Parsons broke down and told her family, who contacted an emergency health team and the police. Later the Cole Harbour District High School student, Parsons, attempted suicide by hanging on April 4, 2013, at her home in Dartmouth, Nova Scotia, Canada, leading to a coma and the decision to switch her life support machine off on April 7, 2013.

Legal status

Main article: Alcohol laws

See also: Legality of home brewing in different countries

Alcohol laws regulate the manufacture, sale, and consumption of alcoholic beverages. Such laws often seek to reduce the availability of these beverages for the purpose of reducing the health and social effects of their consumption.

In particular, such laws specify the legal drinking age which usually varies between 16 and 25 years, sometimes depending on the type of drink. Some countries do not have a legal drinking or purchasing age, but most set the age at 18 years. This can also take the form of distribution only in licensed stores or in monopoly stores. Often, this is combined with some form of taxation. In some jurisdictions alcoholic beverages have been totally prohibited for reasons of religion (e.g., Islamic countries with certain interpretations of sharia law) or perceived public morals and health (e.g., Prohibition in the United States from 1920 to 1933).

Timeline

Members of a German Student Corps drinking (Duchy of Brunswick, 1837).

Main articles: History of alcoholic beverages and Drinking culture

• 10,000 BC: Discovery of late Stone Age jugs suggest that intentionally fermented beverages existed at least as early as the Neolithic period (cir. 10,000 BC).
• 7000–5600 BC: Examination and analysis of ancient pottery jars from the neolithic village of Jiahu in the Henan province of northern China revealed residue left behind by the alcoholic beverages they had once contained. According to a study published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, chemical analysis of the residue confirmed that a fermented drink made of grape and hawthorn fruit wine, honey mead and rice beer was being produced in 7000–5600 BC (McGovern et al., 2005; McGovern 2009). The results of this analysis were published in December 2004.
• 12th century: Distilled alcoholic beverages were first recorded in Europe in the mid-12th century. By the early 14th century, they had spread throughout the European continent.

See also

• Beer and breweries by region
• Chinese alcoholic beverages
• Cooking with alcohol
• Home brewing
• List of alcoholic beverages
• Mixed drink
• Moonshine

External links

• Emerald Media Group: About 37 percent of college students could now be considered alcoholics
• Alcohol, Health-EU Portal
• International Center for Alcohol Policies — Website
• International Center for Alcohol Policies — List of Tables
• National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism - What Is a Standard Drink?
• Most Widely Consumed Alcoholic Beverages

Consumption of ethanol

Patophysiology of ethanol

Pharmacology of ethanol