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'''Ambiguity of Project-706'''
'''Ambiguity of Project-706'''
The senior Staff and their families were told to socialize with each other strictly and not talk to strangers. It was strictly need to know business. The science sources from Pakistan have called Project-706 as "Pakistan's [[Area 51]]"<ref>http://www.chowk.com/articles/15016</ref>.
The Project-706 was kept under a high level of secrecy that it had to be referred to by code even in the highest circles of government. The Government of Pakistan also hidden its scientists and engineers profiles as well as the locations of the nuclear test and research sites. The senior Staff and their families were told to socialize with each other strictly and not talk to strangers. It was strictly need to know business. The science sources from Pakistan have called Project-706 as "Pakistan's [[Area 51]]"<ref>http://www.chowk.com/articles/15016</ref>.
'''The Technology come from Europe'''

Almost all of the equipment of Kahuta came from Europe thanks to A.Q Khan’s connections.
Almost all of the equipment of Kahuta came from Europe thanks to A.Q Khan’s connections.
“A country which could not make sewing needles, good and durable bicycles or even ordinary durable metal rods was embarking on one of the latest and most difficult technologies?" A.Q Khan later said.
“A country which could not make sewing needles, good and durable bicycles or even ordinary durable metal rods was embarking on one of the latest and most difficult technologies?" A.Q Khan later said.

Revision as of 08:59, 21 November 2009

Project 706
The Project-706's 9 years efforts created the first known nuclear test, 28 May 1998, Chagai-I.
Active1974–1983
CountryPakistan
Allegiance Pakistan
BranchPakistan Army Corps of Engineers
Nickname(s)Kahuta Project
Commanders
Notable
commanders		General Zahid Ali Akbar

The Project-706 (other sources Project-726[1]) was the codename of a project conducted during the cold war and Soviet–Afghan War to develop the first atomic bomb for Pakistan. The Project mainly focused on the development of atomic bomb by using the high enriched uranium technology. However, under the Project-706, Pakistani scientists and enginees expertised in the plutonium war head technology and successfully made weapon-grade plutonium by the begaining of 1980s. The project was launched after the defeat of Pakistan in Indo-Pakistani War of 1971. The Project-706 picked up its speed after India's surprise nuclear test, codenamed Smiling Buddha in 1974[2]. The project was led by the Pakistan, and included scientists from the Libya and countries from Europe[3][4]. Formally designated as the Kahuta Project, it refers specifically to the period of the project from 1974–1983 under the control of former Prime Minister of Pakistan Zulfikar Ali Bhutto and later on Pakistan Army Corps of Engineers, under the administration of Lieutenant General Zahid Ali Akbar[5].

The project's roots lay in scientists' fears since the 1967 that India was also investigating nuclear weapons of its own. The nuclear technology was a dream and the brainchild of Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto who deserves the credit of initiating the project. The project was initially launched by the Prime Minister Zulfikar Ali Bhutto in 1972. The populist Prime Minister Zulfikar Ali Bhutto was the main architect of the Project-706[6]. .

The scientific research was directed by noted Pakistani engineers Munir Ahmad Khan and dr. Abdul Qadeer Khan. The Time (magazine) has called Project-706 Pakistan's equivalent effort of the United States's Manhattan Project in 1940s.[7] The project cost US$450 million which was approved by Bhutto in 1972[8][9].

It resulted in the creation of multiple production and research sites that operated in secret. Project-706 maintained control over Pakistan's weapons production until the successful cold test of design of a nuclear device on March 11, 1983 conducted by PAEC under Munir Ahmad Khan[10].

History and origins

The history of Project-706 goes back to 1956 whenPakistan Atomic Energy Commission was founded. Since its independence, Pakistan, under the governments of Liaquat Ali Khan and Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy, heavily focused on the nuclear technology research at the college and university level. The governments of L. A. Khan and Huseyn Suhrawardy heavily funded Pakistan's universities and colleges to bring out the large amount of nuclear research throughout the country. Pakistan, at first, focused on its civilian nuclear technology under the supervision of dr. I. H. Usmani. Dr. Ishrat Hussain Usmani played a solid and pivotal role in the construction and development of Karachi Nuclear Power Plant in 1960s. He is widely credited of sending a huge numbers of Pakistani scientists in the universities of United States, United Kingdom and the Europe.

The quest for nuclear technology began in the late 1960s when, in 1967, Pakistani nuclear scientists and engineers working at IAEA became aware of India's nuclear weapon program. In October, 1965, the then Foreign Minister of Pakistan, Mr. Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto visited Vienna where Munir Ahmad Khan informed him of the status of India's nuclear weapon program and the options Pakistan had to develop its own nuclear capability[11]. Both agreed on the need for Pakistan to develop a nuclear deterrent to meet India's nuclear threat. Bhutto arranged a meeting with President Ayub Khan but the President refused to start the nuclear program[12].

After Indo-Pakistani War of 1971 and Pakistan's defeat, Pakistan began to concentrate to its nuclear program as Munir Ahmad Khan joined and became a head of PAEC. However, in 1972, the year after the war, the ISI learned that India was close to developing an atomic bomb. Bhutto rallied a secret and famous Multan nuclear meeting where Project-706 was launched under Munir Ahmad Khan.

In March, 1974, PAEC Chairman Munir Ahmad Khan called a meeting to initiate a work on an atomic bomb. The meeting was attended by Muhammad Hafeez Qureshi, Ishfaq Ahmad, Riazuddin and dr. Abdus Salam[13]. Dr. Abdus Salam and his noted students Riazuddin and Masud Ahmad started to work on the mathematical and theoretical designs of the bomb which was completed in 1983[14]. According to the dr. Inam-Ur-Rehman, it was Bhutto's effot to bring hundreds of scientists and engineers working in the foreign nuclear firms into the Project-706 whereas many foreign nationals also joined the Project. By the end 1974, Bhutto was able to launched the research work on the atomic bomb.

Nuclear Research in Pakistan

The Nuclear research in Pakistan began in late 1949s and early 1950s when Prime Minister L. A. Khan and Prime Minister Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy, both had delegated and invited hundreds of muslims scientists, physicists, mathematicians, chemists, and engineers, to come to Pakistan. In 1954, a prominent experimental nuclear physicist, Rafi Muhammad Chaudhry founded the High Tension Nuclear Laboratory at the Government College University where millions of Pakistani students educated and research[15]. Dr. R. M. Chaudhry later played an important and influential role in setting up the PINSTECH in 1965. It was R. M. Chaudhry's research physics paper that later in future, R. M. Chaudhry and his students used in the development of Pakistan's Project-706.

During 1950s. Munir Ahmad Khan, who was an American trained nuclear engineer, had studied and conducted research at the American nuclear research institute Argonne National Laboratory[16]. Argonne National Laboratory was the focal point of US's Manhattan Project in 1940s. Khan carefully but quickly sat up the Project-706 following American Manhattan Project's footstep[17].

Munir A. Khan, along with Sultan Bashiruddin Mahmood, did site selection of Rawalpindi in 1974. As Sultan Bashiruddin Mahmood became the first project manager, the work on project was started. Sultan Bashiruddin Mahmood first sat up the Uranium-238 facility and the construction began under Munir Ahmad Khan's guidance and direction.

On December 8, 1972, Nobel laureate in Physics Abdus Salam, who was closely watching and working in Project-706, called two Pakistani theoretical physicists, Riazuddin and Masud Ahmad working at the ICTP, were asked to report to Munir Ahmad Khan[18]. They formed the Theoretical Physics Group (TPG) in PAEC, which was mandated to develop the design of Pakistan's nuclear weapons[19].

The PAEC sat up the Geological team to explore the uranium mine in Pakistan. Dr. Ishfaq Ahmad was prisiding the Geological team. In 1974, Munir Ahmad Khan announced a large deposit of Uranium-238 was found in Baghalchur and Dera Ismail Khan[20][21].

Acceleration of the Project

On May 18, 1974, India carried out its first nuclear test, code named Smiling Buddha, to the great alarm of the Government of Pakistan. Around this time Dr. Abdul Qadeer Khan, a German-trained metallurgical engineer and nuclear weapon technologist, was having a distinguished career in the URENCO[22]. Dr. Khan, while at URENCO, was considered a senior scientist at the facility and had access into facilities most confidential sites[23].

In October 1974 Munir A. Khan sent Sultan Bashiruddin Mahmood to Holland to interview Dr. Khan. In December, 1974, Khan returned to Pakistan to meet Prime Minister Zulfikar Ali Bhutto and PAEC Chairman Munir Ahmad Khan, where he tried to convince Prime Minister Bhutto to adopt his Uranium route rather than Plutonium route. Prime Minister Bhutto did not agree to halt the Plutonium route but decided on the spot to place Khan in charge of the Uranium Program as a parallel nuclear program[24].

Dr. Khan initially worked under Bashiruddin Mahmood. But the pair dissagreed and on April 19, 1976 Dr. Khan wrote a letter to Munir Ahmad Khan, then head of the PAEC. Dr. Khan wrote that he was not satisfied and that he wanted to work independently. In July 1976 Dr. A.Q Khan, with the backing of Prime Minister Bhutto, formed the Engineering Research Laboratory which later became known as Kahuta Research Laboratories (KRL) which was directly under A.Q Khan’s control and reported directly to Prime Minister Bhutto.

The Building of Kahuta Project

By September 1976 a one hundred acre site near Kahuta was personally selected which was claimed by dr. Abdul Qadeer Khan in his columns.[25] However, other sources have claimed that Kahuta was selected by PAEC Chairman Mr. Munir Ahmad Khan in 1972[26]. As the site was selected, Prime Minister Bhutto initiated Pakistan Army Corps of Engineers to build and construct a Uranium Enrichment Plant in Kahuta, with the name of Engineering Research Laboratories. Zahid Ali Akbar, who himself is a system engineer, was surving at the rank of Brigadier at the time when he was selected by Bhutto[27]. He was promoted to Brigadier General and later on Major General; Zahid Ali Akbar heavily collobarated with dr. Khan and his team in the construction and development of nuclear equipments and materials needed in vacuum technology[28][29]. Zahid Ali Akbar quickly developed the components for nuclear materials and equipments that was neccesarry in the field of nuclear technology[30]. Under the supervision of dr. Abdul Qadeer Khan, he expertised in the field Vacuum technology. He is given a credit of developing the electronic components and materials that was needed in vacuum technology; Akbar also given a credit of designing the Kahuta facility[31][32]. By the 1983, Akbar was promoted to Lieutenant General rank in recognition of his heavily involvement in the Project. The same year, Akbar was also given command of Pakistan Army Corps of Engineers to deal with senior people whose cooperation was required[33].

It was a challenge that Dr. A. Q. Khan and his team took fully knowing that it’s “a make or break? project for the nation apart from being an insurance from future Indian aggression (remembering 1971).

Through the late 1970s, Pakistan's program acquired sensitive uranium enrichment technology and expertise. The 1975 arrival of Dr. Abdul Qadeer Khan considerably advanced these efforts. Dr. Khan also brought a small team of European nuclear scientists with him to train Pakistani nuclear scientists to handle the equipment[34].

Dr. Khan was a uranium technologist who brought with him knowledge of gas centrifuge technologies that he had learned through his position at the classified URENCO uranium enrichment plant in the Netherlands. He was put in charge of building, equipping and operating the Kahuta facility[35]. Under Khan's leadership the Kahuta facility was established in 1976.

Dr. Qadeer Khan did take over the Uranium Enrichment Program from Munir Ahmad Khan but Bhutto also made Munir Ahmad Khan as the head of Plutonium reprocessing program. Thus, Project-706 was heading by the Dr. Abdul Qadeer Khan and Mr. Munir Ahmad Khan simultanously[36].

International Response

The location was more secure than the Prime Minister’s house and the security was vigilant as the Government of Pakistan was aware of the United States and Soviet Union trying to put in spies. According to the Brigadier Imtiaz, United States had the ground intelligence and ISI has arrested a number of Soviet and American spies following the 1976. Brigadier Imatiaz also claimed in an interview with the The News International that he had conducted the military operation "Rising Sun" in 1979 that successfully thwarted a CIA plot to target Pakistani nuclear scientists and engineers who were closely associated with Pakistan's nuclear programme[37]. The operation concluded with the arrest and a life imprisonment of a Pakistani CIA agent, Rafiq Safi Munshi, who himself was working as a nuclear engineer at KANUPP, tried to wired classified atomic documents to American consulate located in Karachi. The operation ended with a declaration of a few undercover CIA agents and U.S. diplomats as personae non gratae and their return[38][39].

On June 26, 1979, Pakistan's ISI foiled an attempt by the French Ambassador to Pakistan, Le Gourrierce and his First Secretary, Jean Forlot who were on a surveillance mission to Kahuta Research Laboratories nuclear complex on June 26, 1979. Both were intercepted and their cameras and other sensitive equipment were confiscated. Intercepted documents later on showed that the two were recruited by the CIA.[40].

Ambiguity of Project-706

The Project-706 was kept under a high level of secrecy that it had to be referred to by code even in the highest circles of government. The Government of Pakistan also hidden its scientists and engineers profiles as well as the locations of the nuclear test and research sites. The senior Staff and their families were told to socialize with each other strictly and not talk to strangers. It was strictly need to know business. The science sources from Pakistan have called Project-706 as "Pakistan's Area 51"[41]. The Technology come from Europe Almost all of the equipment of Kahuta came from Europe thanks to A.Q Khan’s connections. “A country which could not make sewing needles, good and durable bicycles or even ordinary durable metal rods was embarking on one of the latest and most difficult technologies?" A.Q Khan later said.

Uranium route to the bomb

File:Pakistan libya.jpg
Dr. Abdul Qadeer Khan's ingeniously developed UF6 Gas centrifuges, named Pak-1 Model

‎

Pakistan from the outset of the Multan conference was exploring both the Plutonium and Uranium routes to the bomb. From 1974 to 1976, uranium enrichment was seen as a backup or at most a co-equal programme for fissile material production[42]. Having two different technologies for production would make Pakistan more resistant to efforts to restrain its programme, and producing both Uranium-235 and plutonium would give Pakistan greater flexibility in weapon design[43]. Mr. Sultan Bashiruddin Mahmood was only one of dozens of scientists and team of nuclear engineers were working in Europe, Canada and the United States in late sixties and early seventies that later became "Consortium Companies" to supply enriched uranium to European nuclear power plants[44]. After India's 1974 nuclear test, a vast majority of PAEC awarded scholars came back to Pakistan and joined the Nuclear program[45].

As Dr. Abdul Qadeer Khan joined the Project. The work on Uranium route spurred. Dr. Qadeer Khan and his team of scientists and engineers quickly sat up the Uranium facilities around the country[46]. In July 1976, Prime Minister Bhutto gave Dr. Abdul Qadeer Khan autonomous control of the uranium enrichment project, reporting directly to the Prime Minister's office, which the arrangement has continued since dr. Qadeer Khan founded the Engineering Research Laboratories (ERL) on 31 July 1976, with the exclusive task of indigenous development of Uranium Enrichment Plant[47]. Within the next five years the target would be achieved[48][49]. A Coordination Board was set up to manage and supervise the project. This Board was headed by Mr. Ghulam Ishaq Khan, and had A G N Kazi, Agha Shahi and Munir Ahmad Khan as its members. However, ERL continued to remain under the overall supervision of PAEC till 1977 after which it was separated and made independent, but throughout the subsequent years and the 1980s, Munir Ahmad Khan continued to serve as Member later head of the Coordination Board for the Uranium enrichment project as Chairman of PAEC.

By the 1983, Project-706's uranium route, under the supervision of dr. Abdul Qadeer Khan, had indigenously developed around 1500-2900 uranium gas centrifuges that could be tested in a nuclear device[8]. It was dr. Abdul Qadeer Khan's effort that on June 4, 1978, Pakistani scientists working in the Engineering Research Laboratories succeed in enriching uranium by separating U-238 and U-235 isotopes at the Chaklala centrifuge laboratory. Dr. Abdul Qadeer Khan, who was heading the team, quickly informs General Zia and PAEC chairman Munir Ahmad Khan informs the imprisoned Prime Minister that time, Zulfikar Ali Bhutto of the historic event[50].

By the end of 1983, KRL under dr. Qadeer Khan, carried out the first cold test of a nuclear device but the but it seems that this effort did not prove to be successful since the Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission led by Munir Ahmad Khan had carried out the first cold test of a working nuclear device on March 11, 1983. However, on March 1984, Kahuta Research Laboratories (KRL) had independently carried out its own cold tests of its nuclear device near Kahuta, using the gas centrifuge technology.

Plutonium route to the bomb

The climax and the main focus of the Project-706 was to build the Kahuta facility as well as theatomic bomb by using the uranium centrifuge technology that was brought by the dr. Qadeer Khan. At first, the plutonium route was not the actual part of the Project-706. That is why, Dr. Abdul Qadeer Khan always wanted Pakistan to work only on Uranium weapon as compared to Plutonium weapon because Plutonium route involved highly complex and sophisticated procedures and processes but PAEC knew better[51]. Despite the aim of Project-706, Plutonium route and all the related activities to establish infrastructure continued in full swing against Dr. Khan desire[52]. Abdul Qadeer Khan sought to undermine Munir Ahmad Khan by opposing the plutonium route because Munir was a plutonium technology expert, having spent 14 years as Head of Reactor Engineering at the IAEA before his joining PAEC in 1972, where PAEC under Munir Khan not only initiated the Kahuta Enrichment project, but continued to give crucial technical support[53].

Contrary to popular perception, Project-706 did not forego the plutonium route to the bomb, and pursued it parallel along with the uranium route. Whether by intention to prepare a "nuclear option" or not, decisions made in the 1960s already provided a valuable basis for establishing a weapons programme[54]. It was the Project-706's umbrella under in which the scientists and engineers build and expertised in the plutonuim weapon grade technology. The actual design of the plutonium bomb and production of the fissile materials took place under the Project-706.

The decision made by Z. A. Bhutto on 1974 proven to be right later in the future when the Plutonium route first seek the historical success in the early 1980s. On March 11, 1983, PAEC, successfully tested the plutonium device in Kirana Hills under the leadership of experienced physicist dr. Ishfaq Ahmad[55][56]. The cold test was witnessed by Munir Ahmad Khan, Gen. Khalid Mahmud Arif and Mr.Ghulam Ishaq Khan[57]. The nuclear device was indigenously developed by DTD headed by Mr. Muhammad Hafeez Qureshi[58][59]. Also, It was Qureshi's indigenously designed and developed plutonium-based nuclear device, which was developed during the period of 1980s under the umbrella of Project-706. Pakistan, under the leadership of dr. Samar Mubarakmand, tested on May 30, 1998 at theKharan desert, codename Kharan-I.

Libya and Project-706

According to Time Magazine, Pakistan received hundreds of millions of dollars for Project 706 from Libya. In return, Libya sent scientists to study Pakistan's enrichment advances. Nominally, the Libyan payments were made in return for Pakistani military assistance[60].

As Zulfikar Ali Bhutto was Prime Minister of Pakistan, Bhutto invited Libya to joined Project-706 as Libya was the sole financer of Pakistan's Project-706. Libya also hoped that by following Pakistan's Project-706; Libya can also have its own nuclear weapon program. That is why, Libya prepared and sent its small team of nuclear scientists to the Pakistan's high-powered nuclear research institutions.

By the time, Libyan scientist joined Project-706, Bhutto, as an elected Prime Minister, was hanged by the Military Coup d'état attempted by General Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq . Gen. Zia Ul- Haq, as Time Magazine described, at first opposed Bhutto's idea of Libyan joining Project-706. Then, in 1977, after Gen. Zia came to power, Libya's connection with Project-706 was immediately cut. According to the Time, Zia personally disliked and distrusted Gaddafi. Zia quickly excluded Libyan scientists from Project-706, resulting Libyans to leave Pakistan[61].

Zia also cut off the military aid to Libya by the end of 1979[62]. Pakistan, under Zia regime, find itself to provide financial aid to its nuclear program. Ghulam Ishaq Khan, or best known as Mr. Nuke, played an important and major role in Pakistan's nuclear program. He also sat up a financial sat up by the end of 1980s. Some critcs says Zia's decision to exclude Libya, Libya could no longer continue its program because of lack of Pakistani cooperation. Despite of these convincing evidence, Colonel Gaddafi of Libya has stated that Libya never fianancially helped Pakistan's program[63].

See also

References

  1. ^ http://www.nti.org/e_research/profiles/pakistan/nuclear/chronology_1977.html
  2. ^ http://owlstree.blogspot.com/2006/06/pakistani-nuclear-program-2-5.html
  3. ^ http://www.nuclearactive.org/docs/LES021904a.html
  4. ^ http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,957761-7,00.html
  5. ^ http://owlstree.blogspot.com/2006/06/pakistani-nuclear-program-2-5.html
  6. ^ http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,957761-7,00.html
  7. ^ Time Magezine Who Has the Bomb
  8. ^ a b http://www.nti.org/e_research/profiles/pakistan/nuclear/chronology_1977.html
  9. ^ http://owlstree.blogspot.com/2006/06/pakistani-nuclear-program-2-5.html
  10. ^ http://owlstree.blogspot.com/2006/06/pakistani-nuclear-program-2-5.html
  11. ^ http://www.pakdef.info/nuclear&missile/speech_munirahmed.html
  12. ^ http://www.pakdef.info/nuclear&missile/speech_munirahmed.html
  13. ^ http://www.pakdef.info/nuclear&missile/munirahmad1.html
  14. ^ http://www.pakdef.info/nuclear&missile/munirahmad1.html
  15. ^ http://www.nti.org/e_research/profiles/Pakistan/Nuclear/5593_5594.html
  16. ^ Munir Khan Passes Away," Business Recorder, April 23, 1999
  17. ^ http://owlstree.blogspot.com/2006/06/pakistani-nuclear-program-2-5.html
  18. ^ "Shahid-ur-Rahman Khan, Long Road to Chaghi(Islamabad: Print Wise Publications, 1999),pp. 38–39.
  19. ^ "Shahid-ur-Rahman Khan, Long Road to Chaghi(Islamabad: Print Wise Publications, 1999),pp. 38–39.
  20. ^ http://owlstree.blogspot.com/2006/06/pakistani-nuclear-program-2-5.html
  21. ^ http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/4954730.stm
  22. ^ http://www.theatlantic.com/doc/200511/aq-khan/3
  23. ^ http://www.theatlantic.com/doc/200511/aq-khan/3
  24. ^ http://www.theatlantic.com/doc/200511/aq-khan/3
  25. ^ http://www.southasianmedia.net/index_opinion.cfm?category=Science&country=Pakistan#A history of Kahuta
  26. ^ http://owlstree.blogspot.com/2006/06/pakistani-nuclear-program-2-5.html
  27. ^ http://www.southasianmedia.net/index_opinion3.cfm?id=186803&country=PAKISTAN
  28. ^ http://www.southasianmedia.net/index_opinion.cfm?category=Science&country=Pakistan#A history of Kahuta
  29. ^ http://www.southasianmedia.net/index_opinion3.cfm?id=186803&country=PAKISTAN
  30. ^ http://www.jang.com.pk/jang/jul2009-daily/29-07-2009/col1.htm Text in Urdu
  31. ^ Text Available in Urdu
  32. ^ http://www.southasianmedia.net/index_opinion3.cfm?id=186803&country=PAKISTAN
  33. ^ http://www.southasianmedia.net/index_opinion3.cfm?id=186803&country=PAKISTAN
  34. ^ http://www.nuclearactive.org/docs/LES021904a.html
  35. ^ http://www.historycommons.org/entity.jsp?entity=zulfikar_ali_bhutto_1
  36. ^ http://www.historycommons.org/entity.jsp?entity=zulfikar_ali_bhutto_1
  37. ^ http://thenews.com.pk/top_story_detail.asp?Id=24241
  38. ^ CIA Plot to Sabotage the Nuclear Program of Pakistan
  39. ^ http://www.thenews.com.pk/top_story_detail.asp?Id=22396
  40. ^ "Profiles of Intelligence" Brigadier Syed A. I. Tirmazi (1985). Profiles of Intelligence. Combined Printers. Library of Congress Catalogue No. 95-930455.
  41. ^ http://www.chowk.com/articles/15016
  42. ^ http://www.pakdef.info/nuclear&missile/munirahmad1.html
  43. ^ http://www.pakdef.info/nuclear&missile/munirahmad1.html
  44. ^ http://owlstree.blogspot.com/2006/06/pakistani-nuclear-program-2-5.html
  45. ^ http://owlstree.blogspot.com/2006/06/pakistani-nuclear-program-2-5.html
  46. ^ http://www.chowk.com/articles/15016
  47. ^ http://www.chowk.com/articles/15016
  48. ^ http://www.chowk.com/articles/15016
  49. ^ http://www.pakdef.info/nuclear&missile/munirahmad1.html
  50. ^ http://www.pakdef.info/nuclear&missile/timeline2.html
  51. ^ [http://www.pakdef.info/nuclear&missile/munirahmad1.html Plutonium
  52. ^ http://www.pakdef.info/nuclear&missile/munirahmad1.html
  53. ^ http://www.pakdef.info/nuclear&missile/munirahmad1.html
  54. ^ http://www.pakdef.info/nuclear&missile/munirahmad1.html
  55. ^ [http://www.defencejournal.com/2000/june/chagai.htm
  56. ^ name="The Nation 2009">"Pakistan Became a Nuclear State in 1983-Dr. Samar", The Nation,(Islamabad) May 2, 2003 accessed on August 6, 2009
  57. ^ Tests and HMX
  58. ^ Tests and HMX
  59. ^ name="The Nation 2009">"Pakistan Became a Nuclear State in 1983-Dr. Samar", The Nation,(Islamabad) May 2, 2003 accessed on August 6, 2009
  60. ^ http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,957761-7,00.html
  61. ^ http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,957761-7,00.html
  62. ^ http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,957761-7,00.html
  63. ^ Qadhafi declared that Libya would never help Pakistan acquire an atomic bomb

Further Readings

Personal References and Accounts

External links

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