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Ultraconservatism refers to extreme conservative views in politics or religious practice.^[1] In modern politics, ultraconservative usually refers to conservatives of the far-right on the political spectrum, comprising groups or individuals who are located to the right of those willing to temporarily agree with political moderates, and continuing further right to include fringe parties.^[2]

Elements of ultraconservatism typically rely on cultural crisis; they frequently support anti-globalism – adopting stances of anti-immigration, nationalism, and sovereignty – use populism and political polarization, with in-group and out-group practices.^[3]^[4]^[5]^[6] The primary economic ideology for most ultraconservatives is neoliberalism.^[6] The use of conspiracy theories is also common amongst ultraconservatives.^[4]

History by country[edit]

Americas[edit]

Brazil[edit]

President Jair Bolsonaro was described as an ultraconservative during his tenure, often aligning his views with President Donald Trump.^[5]^[7] Upon taking office, Bolsonaro nominated ultraconservative Damares Alves to head the Ministry of Human Rights and Citizenship.^[7]^[8] His government would go on to be headed by elites who broadened extractivist activities in the Amazon rainforest, while having confrontations with the indigenous peoples in Brazil.^[9]

United States[edit]

In the United States, ultraconservatism first appeared when right-wing politicians and businesses led the opposition to the New Deal of President Franklin D. Roosevelt.^[4] Beginning in the 1960s, during the Cold War, ultraconservatism began to rise to prominence, especially with the radical right organization, the John Birch Society.^[10]^[11]^[12]^[13] At this time, ultraconservatives were anticommunist, and opposed to the civil rights movement, trade unions, and social programs.^[10]^[11] Members of the John Birch Society believed that the civil rights movement would lead to the creation of a Soviet Negro Republic in the Southern United States.^[11]^[12]^[14] In 1961, Jacob Javits would say that ultraconservatism "represents a danger to the Republican Party", as it was "moving the party farther to the right ... [which] would transform the Republican Party into a fringe party".^[15] Beginning in the 1970s, ultraconservatives attempted to establish their principles into the government and culture of the United States, with the use of think tanks, political action committees, and lobbyists.^[6] These groups were typically supported by wealthy individuals, including the Koch brothers, the families of Richard and Dick DeVos, the Walton family, and Richard Mellon Scaife.^[6] Ultraconservatives would then "mark some groups, seemingly based on race, class, and immigration status", in an effort to polarize the public, saying that some groups were "parasitic" to the economy and took away resources from wealthy individuals who could improve the economy.^[6]

Into the 21st century, the Second New Right, specifically during the tenure of George W. Bush, became more ultraconservative, with some elements of neofascism, adopting views supporting strict law and order, the defense of private property, and using nationalism to describe a mythical "past national glory".^[16] Following the election of Barack Obama in 2008, ultraconservatives made alarmist statements about the United States debt ceiling, calling for cuts to social spending.^[6] During the Obama administration, ultraconservatives would organize Americans into the Tea Party movement, and disseminate a message of "taking back our country" from Obama and creating the birther movement.^[6]

Asia[edit]

Hong Kong[edit]

Hong Kong's shrinking autonomy and democratic backsliding are linked to ultraconservative post-totalitarian Xi Jinping regime.^[17] Some hardline pro-Beijing conservatives in Hong Kong have been referred to by critics as "ultraconservative".^[18]^[19]^[20]

Japan[edit]

Japan's far-right nationalist organization Nippon Kaigi, has been described as "reactionary"^[21] or "ultraconservative"^[22]^[23]^[24] due to its support for the constitutional amendment of Article 9 of the Japanese Constitution, defense of the Empire of Japan, and denial of Japanese war crimes. Since 2006, all Japanese prime ministers from the conservative Liberal Democratic Party (LDP) have been affiliated with the Nippon Kaigi.^[25] Fumio Kishida, who is currently the prime minister of Japan, is also a member of Nippon Kaigi.

Japan's former prime minister Shinzo Abe, was often described as "ultraconservative" because he supported socially conservative and strong Japanese nationalist policies.^[26]^[27] Bryan Mark Rigg referred to the LDP itself as "ultraconservative".^[28]

Europe[edit]

Ultraconservative has occasionally been used interchangeably with fascism, ultranationalism, and right-wing populism when describing the radical right in Europe.^[29]

France[edit]

The Ultra-royalists were an ultra-conservative faction from 1815 to 1830 under the Bourbon Restoration in France.^[30] An Ultra was usually a member of the nobility of high society who strongly supported Roman Catholicism as the state and only legal religion of France, the Bourbon monarchy,^[31] traditional hierarchy between classes and census suffrage against popular will and the interests of the bourgeoisie and their liberal and democratic tendencies.^[32]

Action Française is a French ultraconservative monarchist political movement.^[33] Its ideology was dominated by the precepts of Charles Maurras, following his adherence and his conversion of the movement's founders to royalism.^[34] The movement supported a restoration of the House of Bourbon and, after the 1905 law on the separation of Church and State, the restoration of Roman Catholicism as the state religion—all as rallying points in distinction to the Third Republic of France which was considered corrupt and atheistic by many of its opponents.^[35]

Germany[edit]

The Conservative Revolution (German: Konservative Revolution) was an ultraconservative movement in Germany prominent during the Weimar Republic—between World War I and the Nazi seizure of power—with intellectual exponents such as Oswald Spengler, Carl Schmitt, and Ernst Jünger.^[36] Plunged into what historian Fritz Stern has named a deep "cultural despair," uprooted as they felt within the rationalism and scientism of the modern world, theorists of the Conservative Revolution drew inspiration from various elements of the 19th century, including Friedrich Nietzsche's contempt for Christian ethics, democracy and egalitarianism;^[37] the anti-modern and anti-rationalist tendencies of German Romanticism;^[38] the vision of an organic and naturally-organized folk community cultivated by the Völkisch movement; the Prussian tradition of militaristic and authoritarian nationalism; and their own experience of comradeship and irrational violence on the front lines of World War I.^[39] From the 1960–1970s onwards, the Conservative Revolution has largely influenced the European New Right, in particular the French Nouvelle Droite and the German Neue Rechte.^[40]^[41]^[42]

Hungary[edit]

In its first years, Jobbik held ultraconservative stances, promoting anti-communism and anti-globalism as some of its core tenets, though it became more successful as its views became more moderate.^[43]

References[edit]

^ Stevenson, Angus; Lindberg, Christine A., eds. (2015). "Ultraconservative". New Oxford American Dictionary (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acref/9780195392883.001.0001. ISBN 9780199891535.
^ Huntington 2021, p. 4, Ultraconservatives occupy a broad section of the right-wing continuum, wedged between conservative pragmatists, those willing to moderate their views and work with the political center, and fringe extremists. ... When viewed in this light, the far right shifts from the periphery to the core of the conservative typology..
^ Barreiros, Mencía Montoya (January 10, 2023). "¿Qué es el neoconservadurismo?". El Orden Mundial (in Spanish). Retrieved April 29, 2023.
^ ^a ^b ^c Huntington 2021, p. 4.
^ ^a ^b De Sá Guimarães, Feliciano; De Oliveira E Silva, Irma Dutra (March 2021). "Far-right populism and foreign policy identity: Jair Bolsonaro's ultra-conservatism and the new politics of alignment". International Affairs. 97 (2). Oxford University Press: 345–346. doi:10.1093/ia/iiaa220. ultraconservative governments. This deep conservative identity-set emphasizes three interrelated national role conceptions: (1) an anti-globalist role, composed of narratives in opposition to international institutions; (2) a nationalist role, composed of pro-sovereignty narratives; and (3) an anti-foe role, composed of friend/foe narratives.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g Nelson, Linda Williamson; Robison, Maynard T. (2013). "Which Americans Are More Equal and Why: The Linguistic Construction of Inequality in America". Race, Gender & Class. 20 (1/2): 294–306.
^ ^a ^b Polimédio, Chayenne (October 6, 2018). "Brazil's Fiery Far-Right Presidential Favorite Channels Trump". The Atlantic. Retrieved April 29, 2023.
^ Kirby, Jen (January 2, 2019). "What you need to know about Jair Bolsonaro, Brazil's new far-right president". Vox. Retrieved April 29, 2023.
^ Neto Manuel, Domingos; Moreira Luis Gustavo, Guerreiro (January 2023). "Bolsonaro, the Last Colonizer". Latin American Perspectives. 50 (1): 47–63. doi:10.1177/0094582X221147598. S2CID 255915580. Under the ultraconservative Bolsonaro government, the state has been taken over by elites with rural and extractive capital who plan on exploiting the Amazon rain forest at any cost and see indigenous peoples as an obstacle to their goal.
^ ^a ^b Gart, Jason H. (Autumn 2019). "The Defense Establishment in Cold War Arizona, 1945–1968". The Journal of Arizona History. 60 (3): 301–332. Ultraconservatism, which combined traditional anticommunist rhetoric with fresh acrimony toward civil rights legislation, welfare programs, organized labor, and taxation
^ ^a ^b ^c Stephens, Randall J. (December 30, 2021). "Tracing the origins of today's ultraconservatives". The Washington Post.
^ ^a ^b "Congressional Record: Proceedings and Debates of the 89th Congress, First Session" (PDF). United States Congress. August 10, 1965. a recent meeting in Chicago attended by the apostles of rightwing extremism and ultraconservatism, Mr. Robert Welch, ... founder and titular head of the John Birch Society, ... charged that the civil rights movement is being guided by Communists to dismember American society. He said that the Communist master plan calls for an in- dependent Negro-Soviet republic
^ Huntington 2021, p. 180.
^ Huntington 2021, p. 136.
^ "Javits Warns G.O.P.: Says Ultra-Conservatism Is a Danger to the Party". The New York Times. December 8, 1961. p. 26.
^ Giroux, Henry A. (2006). "The Emerging Authoritarianism in the United States: Political Culture under the Bush/Cheney Administration". Symplokē. 14 (1/2). University of Nebraska Press: 103. doi:10.1353/sym.2007.0021. S2CID 144244630.
^ Ching Kwan Lee; Ming Sing (November 15, 2019). Take Back Our Future: An Eventful Sociology of the Hong Kong Umbrella Movement. Cornell University Press. p. 155. ISBN 978-1-5017-4093-0. With the pervasive perception of dwindling freedoms in Hong Kong, and Beijing's repeated reneging of constitutional promises to implement democracy, Hong Kong's supporters of democracy had increasingly turned to more confrontational tactics to push for democratization before the Umbrella Movement, ranging from occupying roads, hurling things at the de facto organ of Beijing in Hong Kong, and engaging in physical scuffles with the police. The escalation in confrontations, however, has coincided with Xi Jinping's installation in office; he is an ultraconservative and uncompromising leader in a posttotalitarian regime.
^ Stephen Vines (2021). Defying the Dragon: Hong Kong and the World's Largest Dictatorship. Hurst Publishers. ... widely considered to be a stronghold of the ultra-conservative Heung Yee Kuk, the body representing Hong Kong's "indigenous" residents.
^ Edward Vickers (2004). In Search of an Identity: The Politics of History Teaching in Hong Kong, 1960s-2000. Routledge. p. 2. This assumes, of course, that it is possible to isolate a single, purely indigenous perspective on Chinese history and culture an assumption that some ostensibly 'progressive' Western scholars such as Pennycook appear to share with ultra-conservative pro-Beijing traditionalists.
^ Edward Friedman (May 26, 2019). The Politics Of Democratization: Generalizing East Asian Experiences. Taylor & Francis. p. 155. ISBN 978-1-000-30468-8. All four LDF candidates, as well as two from the ultraconservative New Hong Kong Alliance and one from the Civic Association, ...
^ Sohn, Yul; Pempel, T. J., eds. (2018). Japan and Asia's Contested Order: The Interplay of Security, Economics, and Identity. Springer Science+Business Media. p. 148. ISBN 9789811302565 – via Google Books. the reactionary group Nippon Kaigi (Japan Conference)—has been waging war over its shared past with China and South Korea on battlegrounds ranging from Yasukuni Shrine to the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO).
^ Mari Yamaguchi (November 9, 2019). "Japan emperor greets at celebration hosted by conservatives". AP News. Archived from the original on February 24, 2023. Retrieved February 24, 2023. Abe's key ultra-conservative supporter, Nippon Kaigi, or Japan Conference, was among the organizers Saturday.
^ McCurry, Justin (July 8, 2020). "Ultra-nationalist school linked to Japanese PM accused of hate speech". The Guardian. Archived from the original on March 15, 2017. Retrieved March 15, 2017. Abe and Kagoike, who has indicated he will resign as principal, both belong to Nippon Kaigi, an ultra-conservative lobby group whose members include more than a dozen cabinet ministers.
^ Martin Fritz / jtm (July 8, 2020). "Tokyo's new governor defies more than glass ceiling". Deutsche Welle. Archived from the original on August 4, 2016. Retrieved August 2, 2016. In 2008, she made an unsuccessful run at the LDP's chairmanship. Following her defeat, she worked to build an internal party network and became involved in a revisionist group of lawmakers that serves as the mouthpiece of the ultraconservative Nippon Kaigi ("Japan Conference") movement.
^ Sarah Kim (September 4, 2014). "Abe's reshuffle promotes right-wingers". Korea JoongAng Daily. Archived from the original on October 11, 2023. Retrieved December 13, 2023.
^ Jeff Kingston, ed. (2019). The Politics of Religion, Nationalism, and Identity in Asia. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 241. ISBN 9781442276888. In the 2012 election campaign that brought the ultraconservative Shinzo Abe back to power, the LDP expressed its opinion that no additional measures are required to protect the rights of gays and lesbians.
^ Debito Arudou, ed. (2021). Embedded Racism: Japan's Visible Minorities and Racial Discrimination. Rowman & Littlefield. p. VIII. ISBN 9781793653963. The ultraconservative Abe Shinzō government (2012–2020) became Japan's longest-running postwar administration, ...
^ Bryan Mark Rigg, ed. (2020). Flamethrower: Iwo Jima Medal of Honor Recipient and U.S. Marine Woody Williams and His Controversial Award, Japan's Holocaust and the Pacific War. Fidelis Historia. ISBN 9781734534115. This is especially the case with politicians in his current ruling party, The Liberal Democratic Party (which is really ultraconservative, not liberal).
^ Cerny, Karl H. (Spring 2000). "The Radical Right in Central and Eastern Europe since 1989". Perspectives on Political Science. 29 (2): 110. the ideological manifestations of the radical right after 1989 may be called ultranationalism, clericalism, fascism, ultraconservatism, or radical populism
^ Rothschild, Emma (1998). "Condorcet and Adam Smith on education and instruction". In Stevenson, Angus; Lindberg, Christine A. (eds.). Philosophers on Education. Routledge. p. 220. doi:10.1093/acref/9780195392883.001.0001. ISBN 9780415191319. In fact, the ideological claims of these Catholic 'ultraroyalists' seeped into public discourse on a regular basis as early as 1818 […] Like their counterparts in Germany or Austria, ultraconservatives were profoundly influenced by Edmund Burke's Reflections on the Revolution in France (1790).
^ Ultraroyalist. Dictionary of Politics and Government, 2004, p. 250.
^ "Ultra". Encyclopaedia Britannica. "The ultras represented the interests of the large landowners, the aristocracy, clericalists, and former émigrés. They were opposed to the egalitarian and secularizing principles of the Revolution, but they did not aim at restoring the ancien régime; rather, they were concerned with manipulating France's new constitutional machinery in order to regain the assured political and social predominance of the interests they represented".
^ Swart, K. W. (1964). The Sense of Decadence in Nineteenth-Century France. Springer. p. 19. The ultraconservatives of the Action Française felt greatly encouraged by the new nationalistic spirit and the increasing discredit of Leftist ideology.
^ Biographical notice on Maurras on the Académie française's website (in French)
^ Mayeur, Jean-Marie (1987). The Third Republic from Its Origins to the Great War, 1871–1914. Cambridge University Press. p. 298.
^ Mareš, Miroslav; Laryš, Martin; Holzer, Jan (2018). Militant Right-Wing Extremism in Putin's Russia. Routledge. right-wing ultra-conservative thinkers such as Oswald Spengler and Carl Schmitt
^ Woods, Roger (1996). The Conservative Revolution in the Weimar Republic. St. Martin's Press. p. 29. ISBN 0-333-65014-X.
^ Dupeux, Louis (1994). "La nouvelle droite "révolutionnaire-conservatrice" et son influence sous la république de Weimar". Revue d'Histoire Moderne & Contemporaine. 41 (3): 471–488. doi:10.3406/rhmc.1994.1732.
^ Breuer, Stefan (2010). Die radikale Rechte in Deutschland 1871-1945 : Eine politische Ideengeschichte. Reclam, Philipp. p. 21. ISBN 978-3-15-018776-0.
^ Pfahl-Traughber, Armin (1998). Konservative Revolution und Neue Rechte: Rechtsextremistische Intellektuelle gegen den demokratischen Verfassungsstaat. Springer-Verlag. pp. 223–232. ISBN 9783322973900.
^ Bar-On 2011, p. 340
^ François 2017
^ Polyakova, Alina; Shekhovtsov, Anton (Spring 2016). "On the Rise: Europe's Fringe Right". World Affairs. 179 (1): 70–80. doi:10.1177/0043820016662746. S2CID 151976322.

Bibliography[edit]

Huntington, John S. (2021). Far-right Vanguard: The Radical Roots of Modern Conservatism. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 136. ISBN 9780812253474.

[1] Stevenson, Angus; Lindberg, Christine A., eds. (2015). "Ultraconservative". New Oxford American Dictionary (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acref/9780195392883.001.0001. ISBN 9780199891535.

[FOOTNOTEHuntington20214Ultraconservatives_occupy_a_broad_section_of_the_right-wing_continuum,_wedged_between_conservative_pragmatists,_those_willing_to_moderate_their_views_and_work_with_the_political_center,_and_fringe_extremists._..._When_viewed_in_this_light,_the_far_right_shifts_from_the_periphery_to_the_core_of_the_conservative_typology.-2] Huntington 2021, p. 4, Ultraconservatives occupy a broad section of the right-wing continuum, wedged between conservative pragmatists, those willing to moderate their views and work with the political center, and fringe extremists. ... When viewed in this light, the far right shifts from the periphery to the core of the conservative typology..

[3] Barreiros, Mencía Montoya (January 10, 2023). "¿Qué es el neoconservadurismo?". El Orden Mundial (in Spanish). Retrieved April 29, 2023.

[FOOTNOTEHuntington20214-4] Huntington 2021, p. 4.

[:0-5] De Sá Guimarães, Feliciano; De Oliveira E Silva, Irma Dutra (March 2021). "Far-right populism and foreign policy identity: Jair Bolsonaro's ultra-conservatism and the new politics of alignment". International Affairs. 97 (2). Oxford University Press: 345–346. doi:10.1093/ia/iiaa220. ultraconservative governments. This deep conservative identity-set emphasizes three interrelated national role conceptions: (1) an anti-globalist role, composed of narratives in opposition to international institutions; (2) a nationalist role, composed of pro-sovereignty narratives; and (3) an anti-foe role, composed of friend/foe narratives.

[:5-6] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g Nelson, Linda Williamson; Robison, Maynard T. (2013). "Which Americans Are More Equal and Why: The Linguistic Construction of Inequality in America". Race, Gender & Class. 20 (1/2): 294–306.

[:6-7] Polimédio, Chayenne (October 6, 2018). "Brazil's Fiery Far-Right Presidential Favorite Channels Trump". The Atlantic. Retrieved April 29, 2023.

[8] Kirby, Jen (January 2, 2019). "What you need to know about Jair Bolsonaro, Brazil's new far-right president". Vox. Retrieved April 29, 2023.

[9] Neto Manuel, Domingos; Moreira Luis Gustavo, Guerreiro (January 2023). "Bolsonaro, the Last Colonizer". Latin American Perspectives. 50 (1): 47–63. doi:10.1177/0094582X221147598. S2CID 255915580. Under the ultraconservative Bolsonaro government, the state has been taken over by elites with rural and extractive capital who plan on exploiting the Amazon rain forest at any cost and see indigenous peoples as an obstacle to their goal.

[:1-10] Gart, Jason H. (Autumn 2019). "The Defense Establishment in Cold War Arizona, 1945–1968". The Journal of Arizona History. 60 (3): 301–332. Ultraconservatism, which combined traditional anticommunist rhetoric with fresh acrimony toward civil rights legislation, welfare programs, organized labor, and taxation

[:2-11] Stephens, Randall J. (December 30, 2021). "Tracing the origins of today's ultraconservatives". The Washington Post.

[:4-12] "Congressional Record: Proceedings and Debates of the 89th Congress, First Session" (PDF). United States Congress. August 10, 1965. a recent meeting in Chicago attended by the apostles of rightwing extremism and ultraconservatism, Mr. Robert Welch, ... founder and titular head of the John Birch Society, ... charged that the civil rights movement is being guided by Communists to dismember American society. He said that the Communist master plan calls for an in- dependent Negro-Soviet republic

[FOOTNOTEHuntington2021180-13] Huntington 2021, p. 180.

[FOOTNOTEHuntington2021136-14] Huntington 2021, p. 136.

[15] "Javits Warns G.O.P.: Says Ultra-Conservatism Is a Danger to the Party". The New York Times. December 8, 1961. p. 26.

[:3-16] Giroux, Henry A. (2006). "The Emerging Authoritarianism in the United States: Political Culture under the Bush/Cheney Administration". Symplokē. 14 (1/2). University of Nebraska Press: 103. doi:10.1353/sym.2007.0021. S2CID 144244630.

[17] Ching Kwan Lee; Ming Sing (November 15, 2019). Take Back Our Future: An Eventful Sociology of the Hong Kong Umbrella Movement. Cornell University Press. p. 155. ISBN 978-1-5017-4093-0. With the pervasive perception of dwindling freedoms in Hong Kong, and Beijing's repeated reneging of constitutional promises to implement democracy, Hong Kong's supporters of democracy had increasingly turned to more confrontational tactics to push for democratization before the Umbrella Movement, ranging from occupying roads, hurling things at the de facto organ of Beijing in Hong Kong, and engaging in physical scuffles with the police. The escalation in confrontations, however, has coincided with Xi Jinping's installation in office; he is an ultraconservative and uncompromising leader in a posttotalitarian regime.

[18] Stephen Vines (2021). Defying the Dragon: Hong Kong and the World's Largest Dictatorship. Hurst Publishers. ... widely considered to be a stronghold of the ultra-conservative Heung Yee Kuk, the body representing Hong Kong's "indigenous" residents.

[19] Edward Vickers (2004). In Search of an Identity: The Politics of History Teaching in Hong Kong, 1960s-2000. Routledge. p. 2. This assumes, of course, that it is possible to isolate a single, purely indigenous perspective on Chinese history and culture an assumption that some ostensibly 'progressive' Western scholars such as Pennycook appear to share with ultra-conservative pro-Beijing traditionalists.

[20] Edward Friedman (May 26, 2019). The Politics Of Democratization: Generalizing East Asian Experiences. Taylor & Francis. p. 155. ISBN 978-1-000-30468-8. All four LDF candidates, as well as two from the ultraconservative New Hong Kong Alliance and one from the Civic Association, ...

[21] Sohn, Yul; Pempel, T. J., eds. (2018). Japan and Asia's Contested Order: The Interplay of Security, Economics, and Identity. Springer Science+Business Media. p. 148. ISBN 9789811302565 – via Google Books. the reactionary group Nippon Kaigi (Japan Conference)—has been waging war over its shared past with China and South Korea on battlegrounds ranging from Yasukuni Shrine to the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO).

[22] Mari Yamaguchi (November 9, 2019). "Japan emperor greets at celebration hosted by conservatives". AP News. Archived from the original on February 24, 2023. Retrieved February 24, 2023. Abe's key ultra-conservative supporter, Nippon Kaigi, or Japan Conference, was among the organizers Saturday.

[23] McCurry, Justin (July 8, 2020). "Ultra-nationalist school linked to Japanese PM accused of hate speech". The Guardian. Archived from the original on March 15, 2017. Retrieved March 15, 2017. Abe and Kagoike, who has indicated he will resign as principal, both belong to Nippon Kaigi, an ultra-conservative lobby group whose members include more than a dozen cabinet ministers.

[24] Martin Fritz / jtm (July 8, 2020). "Tokyo's new governor defies more than glass ceiling". Deutsche Welle. Archived from the original on August 4, 2016. Retrieved August 2, 2016. In 2008, she made an unsuccessful run at the LDP's chairmanship. Following her defeat, she worked to build an internal party network and became involved in a revisionist group of lawmakers that serves as the mouthpiece of the ultraconservative Nippon Kaigi ("Japan Conference") movement.

[2014_reshuffle-25] Sarah Kim (September 4, 2014). "Abe's reshuffle promotes right-wingers". Korea JoongAng Daily. Archived from the original on October 11, 2023. Retrieved December 13, 2023.

[26] Jeff Kingston, ed. (2019). The Politics of Religion, Nationalism, and Identity in Asia. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 241. ISBN 9781442276888. In the 2012 election campaign that brought the ultraconservative Shinzo Abe back to power, the LDP expressed its opinion that no additional measures are required to protect the rights of gays and lesbians.

[27] Debito Arudou, ed. (2021). Embedded Racism: Japan's Visible Minorities and Racial Discrimination. Rowman & Littlefield. p. VIII. ISBN 9781793653963. The ultraconservative Abe Shinzō government (2012–2020) became Japan's longest-running postwar administration, ...

[28] Bryan Mark Rigg, ed. (2020). Flamethrower: Iwo Jima Medal of Honor Recipient and U.S. Marine Woody Williams and His Controversial Award, Japan's Holocaust and the Pacific War. Fidelis Historia. ISBN 9781734534115. This is especially the case with politicians in his current ruling party, The Liberal Democratic Party (which is really ultraconservative, not liberal).

[29] Cerny, Karl H. (Spring 2000). "The Radical Right in Central and Eastern Europe since 1989". Perspectives on Political Science. 29 (2): 110. the ideological manifestations of the radical right after 1989 may be called ultranationalism, clericalism, fascism, ultraconservatism, or radical populism

[30] Rothschild, Emma (1998). "Condorcet and Adam Smith on education and instruction". In Stevenson, Angus; Lindberg, Christine A. (eds.). Philosophers on Education. Routledge. p. 220. doi:10.1093/acref/9780195392883.001.0001. ISBN 9780415191319. In fact, the ideological claims of these Catholic 'ultraroyalists' seeped into public discourse on a regular basis as early as 1818 […] Like their counterparts in Germany or Austria, ultraconservatives were profoundly influenced by Edmund Burke's Reflections on the Revolution in France (1790).

[31] Ultraroyalist. Dictionary of Politics and Government, 2004, p. 250.

[32] "Ultra". Encyclopaedia Britannica. "The ultras represented the interests of the large landowners, the aristocracy, clericalists, and former émigrés. They were opposed to the egalitarian and secularizing principles of the Revolution, but they did not aim at restoring the ancien régime; rather, they were concerned with manipulating France's new constitutional machinery in order to regain the assured political and social predominance of the interests they represented".

[33] Swart, K. W. (1964). The Sense of Decadence in Nineteenth-Century France. Springer. p. 19. The ultraconservatives of the Action Française felt greatly encouraged by the new nationalistic spirit and the increasing discredit of Leftist ideology.

[Academie-34] Biographical notice on Maurras on the Académie française's website (in French)

[35] Mayeur, Jean-Marie (1987). The Third Republic from Its Origins to the Great War, 1871–1914. Cambridge University Press. p. 298.

[36] Mareš, Miroslav; Laryš, Martin; Holzer, Jan (2018). Militant Right-Wing Extremism in Putin's Russia. Routledge. right-wing ultra-conservative thinkers such as Oswald Spengler and Carl Schmitt

[37] Woods, Roger (1996). The Conservative Revolution in the Weimar Republic. St. Martin's Press. p. 29. ISBN 0-333-65014-X.

[38] Dupeux, Louis (1994). "La nouvelle droite "révolutionnaire-conservatrice" et son influence sous la république de Weimar". Revue d'Histoire Moderne & Contemporaine. 41 (3): 471–488. doi:10.3406/rhmc.1994.1732.

[39] Breuer, Stefan (2010). Die radikale Rechte in Deutschland 1871-1945 : Eine politische Ideengeschichte. Reclam, Philipp. p. 21. ISBN 978-3-15-018776-0.

[40] Pfahl-Traughber, Armin (1998). Konservative Revolution und Neue Rechte: Rechtsextremistische Intellektuelle gegen den demokratischen Verfassungsstaat. Springer-Verlag. pp. 223–232. ISBN 9783322973900.

[41] Bar-On 2011, p. 340

[42] François 2017

[43] Polyakova, Alina; Shekhovtsov, Anton (Spring 2016). "On the Rise: Europe's Fringe Right". World Affairs. 179 (1): 70–80. doi:10.1177/0043820016662746. S2CID 151976322.

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+{{short description|Extremist conservative views}}
-{{Conservatism sidebar|variants}}
+{{use mdy dates|date=April 2023}}
-'''Ultraconservatism''' are [[conservatives]] of the [[far-right]] on the [[political spectrum]], comprising groups or individuals who are located to the right of those willing to temporarily agree with [[political moderate]]s and continuing to further right to include [[Fringe party|fringe parties]].{{sfn|Huntington|2021|p=4|loc=Ultraconservatives occupy a broad section of the right-wing continuum, wedged between conservative pragmatists, those willing to moderate their views and work with the political center, and fringe extremists. ... When viewed in this light, the far right shifts from the periphery to the core of the conservative typology.}} Elements of ultraconservatism typically rely on cultural crisis; they frequently support [[anti-globalism]] – adopting stances of [[anti-immigration]], [[nationalism]] and [[sovereignty]] – utilize [[populism]] and exploit [[political polarization]] with [[in-group and out-group]] practices.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Barreiros |first=Mencía Montoya |date=2023-01-10 |title=¿Qué es el neoconservadurismo? |url=https://elordenmundial.com/que-es-neoconservadurismo/ |access-date=2023-04-29 |website=El Orden Mundial |language=es}}</ref>{{sfn|Huntington|2021|p=4}}<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last=De Sá Guimarães |first=Feliciano |last2=De Oliveira E Silva |first2=Irma Dutra |date=March 2021 |title=Far-right populism and foreign policy identity: Jair Bolsonaro's ultra-conservatism and the new politics of alignment |journal=[[International Affairs]] |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |volume=97 |issue=2 |pages=345-346 |quote=ultraconservative governments. This deep conservative identity-set emphasizes three interrelated national role conceptions: (1) an anti-globalist role, composed of narratives in opposition to international institutions; (2) a nationalist role, composed of pro-sovereignty narratives; and (3) an anti-foe role, composed of friend/foe narratives.}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last=Nelson |first=Linda Williamson |last2=Robison |first2=Maynard T. |date=2013 |title=Which Americans Are More Equal and Why: The Linguistic Construction of Inequality in America |journal=Race, Gender & Class |volume=20 |issue=1/2 |pages=294-306}}</ref> The primary [[economic ideology]] for most ultraconservatives is [[neoliberalism]].<ref name=":5" /> The use of [[conspiracy theories]] is also common amongst ultraconservatives.{{sfn|Huntington|2021|p=4}}
+{{conservatism sidebar|variants}}
+'''Ultraconservatism''' refers to extreme [[conservative]] views in politics or religious practice.<ref>{{Cite book |title=New Oxford American Dictionary |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=2015 |isbn=9780199891535 |editor-last=Stevenson |editor-first=Angus |edition=3rd |chapter=Ultraconservative |doi=10.1093/acref/9780195392883.001.0001| chapter-url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/acref/9780195392883.001.0001/m_en_us1301485 |editor-last2=Lindberg |editor-first2=Christine A.}}</ref> In modern politics, ''ultraconservative'' usually refers to conservatives of the [[far-right]] on the [[political spectrum]], comprising groups or individuals who are located to the right of those willing to temporarily agree with [[political moderate]]s, and continuing further right to include [[fringe parties]].{{sfn|Huntington|2021|p=4|loc=Ultraconservatives occupy a broad section of the right-wing continuum, wedged between conservative pragmatists, those willing to moderate their views and work with the political center, and fringe extremists. ... When viewed in this light, the far right shifts from the periphery to the core of the conservative typology.}}
+Elements of ultraconservatism typically rely on cultural crisis; they frequently support [[anti-globalism]] – adopting stances of [[anti-immigration]], [[nationalism]], and [[sovereignty]] – use [[populism]] and [[political polarization]], with [[in-group and out-group]] practices.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Barreiros |first=Mencía Montoya |date=January 10, 2023 |title=¿Qué es el neoconservadurismo? |url=https://elordenmundial.com/que-es-neoconservadurismo/ |access-date=2023-04-29 |website=El Orden Mundial |language=es}}</ref>{{sfn|Huntington|2021|p=4}}<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=De Sá Guimarães |first1=Feliciano |last2=De Oliveira E Silva |first2=Irma Dutra |date=March 2021 |title=Far-right populism and foreign policy identity: Jair Bolsonaro's ultra-conservatism and the new politics of alignment |journal=[[International Affairs]] |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |volume=97 |issue=2 |pages=345–346 |doi=10.1093/ia/iiaa220 |quote=ultraconservative governments. This deep conservative identity-set emphasizes three interrelated national role conceptions: (1) an anti-globalist role, composed of narratives in opposition to international institutions; (2) a nationalist role, composed of pro-sovereignty narratives; and (3) an anti-foe role, composed of friend/foe narratives.}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Nelson |first1=Linda Williamson |last2=Robison |first2=Maynard T. |date=2013 |title=Which Americans Are More Equal and Why: The Linguistic Construction of Inequality in America |journal=Race, Gender & Class |volume=20 |issue=1/2 |pages=294–306}}</ref> The primary [[economic ideology]] for most ultraconservatives is [[neoliberalism]].<ref name=":5" /> The use of [[conspiracy theories]] is also common amongst ultraconservatives.{{sfn|Huntington|2021|p=4}}
-== Examples ==
+== History by country ==
 === Americas ===
 ==== Brazil ====
+{{see also|Conservatism in Brazil}}
-[[President of Brazil|President]] [[Jair Bolsonaro]] was described as an ultraconservative during his tenure, often aligning his views with [[President of the United States|President]] [[Donald Trump]].<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":6">{{Cite web |last=Polimédio |first=Chayenne |date=2018-10-06 |title=Brazil’s Fiery Far-Right Presidential Favorite Channels Trump |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2018/10/bolsonaro-brazil-election-trump/572365/ |access-date=2023-04-29 |website=[[The Atlantic]] |language=en}}</ref> Upon taking office, Bolsonaro nominated ultraconservative [[Damares Alves]] to head the [[Ministry of Human Rights and Citizenship]].<ref name=":6" /><ref>{{Cite web |last=Kirby |first=Jen |date=2019-01-02 |title=What you need to know about Jair Bolsonaro, Brazil’s new far-right president |url=https://www.vox.com/2019/1/2/18165663/jair-bolsonaro-president-brazil-trump |access-date=2023-04-29 |website=[[Vox (website)|Vox]] |language=en}}</ref> His government would go on to be headed by elites who and broadened [[extractivist]] activities in the [[Amazon rainforest]] while having confrontations with the [[indigenous peoples in Brazil]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Neto Manuel |first=Domingos  |last2=Moreira Luis Gustavo |first2=Guerreiro |date=January 2023 |title=Bolsonaro, the Last Colonizer |journal=Latin American Perspectives |volume=50 |issue=1 |pages=47-63 |quote=Under the ultraconservative Bolsonaro government, the state has been taken over by elites with rural and extractive capital who plan on exploiting the Amazon rain forest at any cost and see indigenous peoples as an obstacle to their goal.}}</ref>
+President [[Jair Bolsonaro]] was described as an ultraconservative during his tenure, often aligning his views with President [[Donald Trump]].<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":6">{{Cite web |last=Polimédio |first=Chayenne |date=October 6, 2018 |title=Brazil's Fiery Far-Right Presidential Favorite Channels Trump |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2018/10/bolsonaro-brazil-election-trump/572365/ |access-date=2023-04-29 |website=[[The Atlantic]] |language=en}}</ref> Upon taking office, Bolsonaro nominated ultraconservative [[Damares Alves]] to head the [[Ministry of Human Rights and Citizenship]].<ref name=":6" /><ref>{{Cite web |last=Kirby |first=Jen |date=January 2, 2019 |title=What you need to know about Jair Bolsonaro, Brazil's new far-right president |url=https://www.vox.com/2019/1/2/18165663/jair-bolsonaro-president-brazil-trump |access-date=2023-04-29 |website=[[Vox (website)|Vox]] |language=en}}</ref> His government would go on to be headed by elites who broadened [[extractivist]] activities in the [[Amazon rainforest]], while having confrontations with the [[indigenous peoples in Brazil]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Neto Manuel |first1=Domingos  |last2=Moreira Luis Gustavo |first2=Guerreiro |date=January 2023 |title=Bolsonaro, the Last Colonizer |journal=Latin American Perspectives |volume=50 |issue=1 |pages=47–63 |doi=10.1177/0094582X221147598  |s2cid=255915580  |quote=Under the ultraconservative Bolsonaro government, the state has been taken over by elites with rural and extractive capital who plan on exploiting the Amazon rain forest at any cost and see indigenous peoples as an obstacle to their goal.}}</ref>
 ==== United States ====
+{{see also|Conservatism in the United States}}
-In the [[United States]], ultraconservatism first appeared when right-wing politicians and businesses led opposition to the [[New Deal]] of President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]].{{sfn|Huntington|2021|p=4}} Beginning in the 1960s during the [[Cold War]], ultraconservatism began to rise to prominence, especially with the [[Radical right (United States)|radical right]] organization, the [[John Birch Society]].<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Gart |first=Jason H. |date=Autumn 2019 |title=The Defense Establishment in Cold War Arizona, 1945-1968 |journal=The Journal of Arizona History |volume=60 |issue=3 |pages=301-332 |quote=Ultraconservatism, which combined traditional anticommunist rhetoric with fresh acrimony toward civil rights legislation, welfare programs, organized labor, and taxation}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite web |last=Stephens |first=Randall J. |date=30 December 2021 |title=Tracing the origins of today’s ultraconservatives |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/outlook/tracing-the-origins-of-todays-ultraconservatives/2021/12/29/ae14b39a-496c-11ec-b8d9-232f4afe4d9b_story.html |website=[[The Washington Post]]}}</ref><ref name=":4">{{Cite web |date=10 August 1965 |title=Congressional Record: Proceedings and Debates of the 89th Congress, First Session |url=https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/GPO-CRECB-1965-pt15/pdf/GPO-CRECB-1965-pt15-1-1.pdf |website=[[United States Congress]] |quote=a recent meeting in Chicago attended by the apostles of rightwing extremism and ultraconservatism, Mr. Robert Welch, ... founder and titular head of the John Birch Society, ... charged that the civil rights movement is being guided by Communists to dismember American society. He said that the Communist master plan calls for an in- dependent Negro-Soviet republic}}</ref>{{sfn|Huntington|2021|p=180}} At this time, ultraconservatives were [[anticommunist]] and opposed to the [[civil rights movement]], [[trade unions]] and [[social programs]].<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /> Members of the John Birch Society believed that the civil rights movement would lead to the creation of a [[Soviet Negro Republic]] in the [[Southern United States]].<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":4" />{{sfn|Huntington|2021|p=136}} In 1961, [[Jacob Javits]] would say that ultraconservatism "represents a danger to the Republican Party" as it was "moving the party farther to the right ... [which] would transform the Republican Party into and fringe party".<ref>{{Cite news |date=8 December 1961 |title=Javits Warns G.O.P.: Says Ultra-Conservatism Is a Danger to the Party |pages=26 |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1961/12/08/archives/javits-warns-gop-says-ultraconservatism-is-a-danger-to-the-party.html}}</ref>
+In the United States, ultraconservatism first appeared when right-wing politicians and businesses led the opposition to the [[New Deal]] of President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]].{{sfn|Huntington|2021|p=4}} Beginning in the 1960s, during the [[Cold War]], ultraconservatism began to rise to prominence, especially with the [[Radical right (United States)|radical right]] organization, the [[John Birch Society]].<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Gart |first=Jason H. |date=Autumn 2019 |title=The Defense Establishment in Cold War Arizona, 1945–1968 |journal=The Journal of Arizona History |volume=60 |issue=3 |pages=301–332 |quote=Ultraconservatism, which combined traditional anticommunist rhetoric with fresh acrimony toward civil rights legislation, welfare programs, organized labor, and taxation}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite news |last=Stephens |first=Randall J. |date=December 30, 2021 |title=Tracing the origins of today's ultraconservatives |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/outlook/tracing-the-origins-of-todays-ultraconservatives/2021/12/29/ae14b39a-496c-11ec-b8d9-232f4afe4d9b_story.html |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]}}</ref><ref name=":4">{{Cite web |date=August 10, 1965 |title=Congressional Record: Proceedings and Debates of the 89th Congress, First Session |url=https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/GPO-CRECB-1965-pt15/pdf/GPO-CRECB-1965-pt15-1-1.pdf |website=[[United States Congress]] |quote=a recent meeting in Chicago attended by the apostles of rightwing extremism and ultraconservatism, Mr. Robert Welch, ... founder and titular head of the John Birch Society, ... charged that the civil rights movement is being guided by Communists to dismember American society. He said that the Communist master plan calls for an in- dependent Negro-Soviet republic}}</ref>{{sfn|Huntington|2021|p=180}} At this time, ultraconservatives were [[anticommunist]], and opposed to the [[civil rights movement]], trade unions, and [[social programs]].<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /> Members of the John Birch Society believed that the civil rights movement would lead to the creation of a [[Soviet Negro Republic]] in the Southern United States.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":4" />{{sfn|Huntington|2021|p=136}} In 1961, [[Jacob Javits]] would say that ultraconservatism "represents a danger to the Republican Party", as it was "moving the party farther to the right ... [which] would transform the Republican Party into a fringe party".<ref>{{Cite news |date=December 8, 1961 |title=Javits Warns G.O.P.: Says Ultra-Conservatism Is a Danger to the Party |pages=26 |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1961/12/08/archives/javits-warns-gop-says-ultraconservatism-is-a-danger-to-the-party.html}}</ref>
-Beginning in the 1970s, ultraconservatives attempted to establish their principles into the government and culture of the United States with the use of [[think tanks]], [[political action committee]]<nowiki/>s and [[lobbyists]].<ref name=":5" /> These groups were typically supported by wealthy individuals, including the [[Koch brothers]], the families of [[Richard DeVos|Richard]] and [[Dick DeVos]], the [[Walton family]] and [[Richard Mellon Scaife]].<ref name=":5" /> Ultraconservatives would then "mark some groups, seemingly based on race, class and immigration status" in an effort to polarize the public, saying that some groups were "parasitic" to the economy and took away resources from [[Trickle down economics|wealthy individuals who could improve the economy]].<ref name=":5" />
+Beginning in the 1970s, ultraconservatives attempted to establish their principles into the government and culture of the United States, with the use of [[think tanks]], [[political action committee]]s, and [[lobbyists]].<ref name=":5" /> These groups were typically supported by wealthy individuals, including the [[Koch brothers]], the families of [[Richard DeVos|Richard]] and [[Dick DeVos]], the [[Walton family]], and [[Richard Mellon Scaife]].<ref name=":5" /> Ultraconservatives would then "mark some groups, seemingly based on race, class, and immigration status", in an effort to polarize the public, saying that some groups were "parasitic" to the economy and took away resources from [[Trickle-down economics|wealthy individuals who could improve the economy]].<ref name=":5" />
-Into the 21st century, the [[New Right|Second New Right]], specifically during the tenure of [[George W. Bush]], became more ultraconservative with some elements of [[neofascism]], adopting views supporting strict [[law and order]], the defense of [[private property]] and using [[nationalism]] to describe a mythical "past national glory".<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last=Giroux |first=Henry A. |date=2006 |title=The Emerging Authoritarianism in the United States: Political Culture under the Bush/Cheney Administration |journal=Symplokē |publisher=[[University of Nebraska Press]] |volume=14 |issue=1/2 |pages=103}}</ref> Following the [[election of Barack Obama]] in 2008, ultraconservatives made alarmist statements about the [[United States debt ceiling]], calling for cuts to social spending.<ref name=":5" /> During the Obama administration, ultraconservatives would organize white Americans into the [[Tea Party movement]] and disseminate a message of "taking back our country" from Obama, the first [[African-American]] president, and creating the [[Birther movement]].<ref name=":5" />
+Into the 21st century, the [[New Right|Second New Right]], specifically during the tenure of [[George W. Bush]], became more ultraconservative, with some elements of [[neofascism]], adopting views supporting strict [[Law and order (politics)|law and order]], the defense of [[private property]], and using [[nationalism]] to describe a mythical "past national glory".<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last=Giroux |first=Henry A. |date=2006 |title=The Emerging Authoritarianism in the United States: Political Culture under the Bush/Cheney Administration |journal=Symplokē |publisher=[[University of Nebraska Press]] |volume=14 |issue=1/2 |pages=103|doi=10.1353/sym.2007.0021 |s2cid=144244630 }}</ref> Following the [[election of Barack Obama]] in 2008, ultraconservatives made alarmist statements about the [[United States debt ceiling]], calling for cuts to social spending.<ref name=":5" /> During the Obama administration, ultraconservatives would organize Americans into the [[Tea Party movement]], and disseminate a message of "taking back our country" from Obama and creating the [[birther movement]].<ref name=":5" />
+=== Asia ===
+==== Hong Kong ====
+{{main|Radical pro-Beijing camp}}
+{{see also|Conservatism in Hong Kong|Neoauthoritarianism (China)}}
+[[Hong Kong]]'s shrinking autonomy and democratic backsliding are linked to ultraconservative post-totalitarian [[Xi Jinping]] regime.<ref>{{cite book |author1=Ching Kwan Lee |author2=Ming Sing |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=B72tDwAAQBAJ&dq=%22ultraconservative%22+Hong+Kong&pg=PA155 |title=Take Back Our Future: An Eventful Sociology of the Hong Kong Umbrella Movement |quote= With the pervasive perception of dwindling freedoms in Hong Kong, and Beijing's repeated reneging of constitutional promises to implement democracy, Hong Kong's supporters of democracy had increasingly turned to more confrontational tactics to push for democratization before the Umbrella Movement, ranging from occupying roads, hurling things at the de facto organ of Beijing in Hong Kong, and engaging in physical scuffles with the police. The escalation in confrontations, however, has coincided with Xi Jinping's installation in office; he is an ultraconservative and uncompromising leader in a posttotalitarian regime. |date=November 15, 2019 |publisher=[[Cornell University Press]] |pages=155|isbn=978-1-5017-4093-0 }}</ref>
+Some hardline pro-Beijing conservatives in Hong Kong have been referred to by critics as "ultraconservative".<ref>{{cite book |author1=Stephen Vines |title=Defying the Dragon: Hong Kong and the World's Largest Dictatorship |quote=... widely considered to be a stronghold of the ultra-conservative Heung Yee Kuk, the body representing Hong Kong's “indigenous” residents. |date=2021 |publisher=Hurst Publishers}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author1=Edward Vickers |title=In Search of an Identity: The Politics of History Teaching in Hong Kong, 1960s-2000 |quote=This assumes, of course, that it is possible to isolate a single, purely indigenous perspective on Chinese history and culture an assumption that some ostensibly 'progressive' Western scholars such as Pennycook appear to share with ultra-conservative pro-Beijing traditionalists. |date=2004 |publisher=Routledge |pages=2}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author1=Edward Friedman |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8kyfDwAAQBAJ&dq=%22ultraconservative%22+Hong+Kong&pg=PT164 |title=The Politics Of Democratization: Generalizing East Asian Experiences |quote= All four LDF candidates, as well as two from the ultraconservative New Hong Kong Alliance and one from the Civic Association, ...|date=May 26, 2019 |publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]] |pages=155| isbn=978-1-000-30468-8 }}</ref>
+==== Japan ====
+Japan's far-right nationalist organization [[Nippon Kaigi]], has been described as "[[reactionary]]"<ref>{{cite book |editor1-first=Yul |editor1-last=Sohn |editor2-first=T. J. |editor2-last=Pempel |title=Japan and Asia's Contested Order: The Interplay of Security, Economics, and Identity |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4F5qDwAAQBAJ&q=Reactionary+Nippon+Kaigi&pg=PA148 |quote=the reactionary group Nippon Kaigi (Japan Conference)—has been waging war over its shared past with China and South Korea on battlegrounds ranging from Yasukuni Shrine to the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). |date=2018 |page=148 |publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media]] |isbn=9789811302565 |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref> or "ultraconservative"<ref>{{cite web |title=Japan emperor greets at celebration hosted by conservatives |url=https://apnews.com/article/b9e0627cfdef445d9da335238c3ad1b1 |author1=Mari Yamaguchi |quote=Abe's key ultra-conservative supporter, Nippon Kaigi, or Japan Conference, was among the organizers Saturday. |website=[[AP News]]|access-date=24 February 2023|date=9 November 2019 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230224221212/https://apnews.com/article/b9e0627cfdef445d9da335238c3ad1b1 |archive-date=24 February 2023 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Ultra-nationalist school linked to Japanese PM accused of hate speech |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/mar/15/ultra-nationalist-school-moritomo-gakuen-linked-to-japanese-pm-shinzo-abe-accused-of-hate-speech |first1=Justin |last1=McCurry |quote=Abe and Kagoike, who has indicated he will resign as principal, both belong to Nippon Kaigi, an ultra-conservative lobby group whose members include more than a dozen cabinet ministers. |website=[[The Guardian]]|access-date=15 March 2017 |date=8 July 2020 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170315143505/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/mar/15/ultra-nationalist-school-moritomo-gakuen-linked-to-japanese-pm-shinzo-abe-accused-of-hate-speech |archive-date= 15 March 2017 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Tokyo's new governor defies more than glass ceiling |url=https://www.dw.com/en/tokyos-new-governor-defies-more-than-glass-ceiling/a-19443490 |author=Martin Fritz / jtm  |quote=In 2008, she made an unsuccessful run at the LDP's chairmanship. Following her defeat, she worked to build an internal party network and became involved in a revisionist group of lawmakers that serves as the mouthpiece of the ultraconservative Nippon Kaigi ("Japan Conference") movement. |website=[[Deutsche Welle]]|access-date=2 August 2016|date=8 July 2020 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160804020046/https://www.dw.com/en/tokyos-new-governor-defies-more-than-glass-ceiling/a-19443490 |archive-date= Aug 4, 2016 }}</ref> due to its support for the constitutional amendment of [[Article 9 of the Japanese Constitution]], defense of the [[Empire of Japan]], and denial of [[Japanese war crimes]]. Since 2006, all Japanese prime ministers from the conservative [[Liberal Democratic Party (Japan)|Liberal Democratic Party]] (LDP) have been affiliated with the Nippon Kaigi.<ref name="2014 reshuffle">{{Cite web |date=2014-09-04 |title=Abe's reshuffle promotes right-wingers |url=http://koreajoongangdaily.joins.com/news/article/article.aspx?aid=2994558 |access-date=2023-12-13 |website=Korea JoongAng Daily |author1=Sarah Kim |language=en |url-status=live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20231011134425/https://koreajoongangdaily.joins.com/news/article/article.aspx?aid=2994558 |archive-date= Oct 11, 2023 }}</ref> [[Fumio Kishida]], who is currently the prime minister of Japan, is also a member of Nippon Kaigi.
+Japan's former prime minister [[Shinzo Abe]], was often described as "ultraconservative" because he supported socially conservative and strong [[Japanese nationalist]] policies.<ref>{{cite book|editor=Jeff Kingston |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rHahDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA241 |title=The Politics of Religion, Nationalism, and Identity in Asia |quote= In the 2012 election campaign that brought the ultraconservative Shinzo Abe back to power, the LDP expressed its opinion that no additional measures are required to protect the rights of gays and lesbians. |date=2019 |page=241 |publisher=[[Rowman & Littlefield]] |isbn=9781442276888 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |editor=Debito Arudou |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IEBNEAAAQBAJ&pg=PR8 |title=Embedded Racism: Japan's Visible Minorities and Racial Discrimination |quote=The ultraconservative Abe Shinzō government (2012–2020) became Japan's longest-running postwar administration, ... |date=2021 |page=VIII |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |isbn=9781793653963 }}</ref> [[Bryan Mark Rigg]] referred to the LDP itself as "ultraconservative".<ref>{{cite book |editor=Bryan Mark Rigg |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HLfcDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT877 |title=Flamethrower: Iwo Jima Medal of Honor Recipient and U.S. Marine Woody Williams and His Controversial Award, Japan's Holocaust and the Pacific War |quote=This is especially the case with politicians in his current ruling party, The Liberal Democratic Party (which is really ultraconservative, not liberal). |date=2020 |publisher=Fidelis Historia |isbn=9781734534115 }}</ref>
 === Europe ===
-The term "ultraconservative" has occasionally been used interchangeably with [[fascism]], [[ultranationalism]] and radical populism when describing the [[Radical right (Europe)|radical right in Europe]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Cerny |first=Karl H. |date=Spring 2000 |title=The Radical Right in Central and Eastern Europe since 1989 |journal=[[Perspectives on Political Science]] |volume=29 |issue=2 |pages=110}}</ref>
+''Ultraconservative'' has occasionally been used interchangeably with [[fascism]], [[ultranationalism]], and [[right-wing populism]] when describing the [[radical right in Europe]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Cerny |first=Karl H. |date=Spring 2000 |title=The Radical Right in Central and Eastern Europe since 1989 |journal=[[Perspectives on Political Science]] |volume=29 |issue=2 |pages=110 |quote=the ideological manifestations of the radical right after 1989 may be called ultranationalism, clericalism, fascism, ultraconservatism, or radical populism}}</ref>
+==== France ====
+The [[Ultra-royalist]]s were an ultra-conservative faction from 1815 to 1830 under the [[Bourbon Restoration in France]].<ref>{{Cite book |title=Philosophers on Education |publisher=[[Routledge]] |year=1998 |isbn= 9780415191319 |chapter=Condorcet and Adam Smith on education and instruction |doi=10.1093/acref/9780195392883.001.0001|chapter-url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9780203981610-23/condorcet-adam-smith-education-instruction|author=[[Emma Rothschild|Rothschild, Emma]] |editor-first1=Angus |editor-first2=Christine A. |editor-last1=Stevenson |editor-last2=Lindberg |page=220 |quote=In fact, the ideological claims of these Catholic 'ultraroyalists' seeped into public discourse on a regular basis as early as 1818 […] Like their counterparts in Germany or Austria, ultraconservatives were profoundly influenced by Edmund Burke's ''Reflections on the Revolution in France'' (1790).}}</ref> An Ultra was usually a member of the nobility of high society who strongly supported [[Roman Catholicism]] as the state and only legal religion of France, the [[House of Bourbon|Bourbon]] [[monarchy]],<ref>''Ultraroyalist''. Dictionary of Politics and Government, 2004, p. 250.</ref> [[Social hierarchy|traditional hierarchy between classes]] and [[Suffrage#Census suffrage|census suffrage]] against [[General will|popular will]] and the interests of the ''[[bourgeoisie]]'' and their [[Liberalism|liberal]] and [[Liberal democracy|democratic]] tendencies.<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/topic/ultra-French-history "Ultra"]. ''Encyclopaedia Britannica''. "The ultras represented the interests of the large landowners, the aristocracy, clericalists, and former ''émigrés''. They were opposed to the egalitarian and secularizing principles of the Revolution, but they did not aim at restoring the ''ancien régime;'' rather, they were concerned with manipulating France's new constitutional machinery in order to regain the assured political and social predominance of the interests they represented".</ref>
+''[[Action Française]]'' is a French ultraconservative [[monarchism in France|monarchist]] political movement.<ref>{{cite book|page=19|title=The Sense of Decadence in Nineteenth-Century France|author=[[K. W. Swart|Swart, K. W.]]|year=1964|publisher=Springer|quote=The ultraconservatives of the Action Française felt greatly encouraged by the new nationalistic spirit and the increasing discredit of Leftist ideology.}}</ref> Its ideology was dominated by [[Maurrassisme|the precepts]] of [[Charles Maurras]], following his adherence and his conversion of the movement's founders to [[royalist|royalism]].<ref name=Academie>[http://www.academie-francaise.fr/les-immortels/charles-maurras Biographical notice] on Maurras on the [[Académie française]]'s website {{in lang|fr}}</ref> The movement supported a restoration of the [[House of Bourbon]] and, after the [[1905 French law on the separation of Church and State|1905 law on the separation of Church and State]], the restoration of [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholicism]] as the state religion—all as rallying points in distinction to the [[Third Republic of France]] which was considered corrupt and atheistic by many of its opponents.<ref>{{cite book|page=298|title=The Third Republic from Its Origins to the Great War, 1871–1914|first=Jean-Marie|last=Mayeur|year=1987|publisher=Cambridge University Press}}</ref>
+==== Germany ====
+{{see also|Conservatism in Germany}}
+The [[Conservative Revolution]] ({{lang-de|Konservative Revolution}}) was an ultraconservative movement in Germany prominent during the [[Weimar Republic]]—between [[World War I]] and the [[Nazi seizure of power]]—with intellectual exponents such as [[Oswald Spengler]], [[Carl Schmitt]], and [[Ernst Jünger]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Militant Right-Wing Extremism in Putin's Russia|last1=Mareš |first1=Miroslav |last2=Laryš |first2=Martin |last3=Holzer |first3=Jan|year=2018|publisher=Routledge|url=https://www.routledge.com/Militant-Right-Wing-Extremism-in-Putins-Russia-Legacies-Forms-and-Threats/Mares-Larys-Holzer/p/book/9781032094472|quote=right-wing ultra-conservative thinkers such as Oswald Spengler and Carl Schmitt}}</ref> Plunged into what historian [[Fritz Stern]] has named a deep "cultural despair," uprooted as they felt within the [[rationalism]] and [[scientism]] of the modern world, theorists of the Conservative Revolution drew inspiration from various elements of the 19th century, including [[Friedrich Nietzsche]]'s contempt for [[Christian ethics]], democracy and egalitarianism;<ref>{{cite book|last=Woods|first=Roger|author-link=Roger Woods|title=The Conservative Revolution in the Weimar Republic|year=1996|publisher=St. Martin's Press|isbn=0-333-65014-X|page=29}}</ref> the anti-modern and anti-rationalist tendencies of [[German Romanticism]];<ref>{{cite journal|last=Dupeux|first=Louis|author-link=Louis Dupeux|year=1994|title=La nouvelle droite "révolutionnaire-conservatrice" et son influence sous la république de Weimar|journal=Revue d'Histoire Moderne & Contemporaine|volume=41|issue=3|pages=471–488|doi=10.3406/rhmc.1994.1732}}</ref> the vision of an organic and naturally-organized [[Volk|folk]] community cultivated by the [[Völkisch movement|''Völkisch'' movement]]; the Prussian tradition of militaristic and authoritarian nationalism; and their own experience of comradeship and irrational violence on the front lines of [[World War I]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Breuer|first=Stefan|author-link=Stefan Breuer|title=Die radikale Rechte in Deutschland 1871-1945 : Eine politische Ideengeschichte|year=2010|publisher=Reclam, Philipp|isbn=978-3-15-018776-0|page=21}}</ref> From the 1960–1970s onwards, the Conservative Revolution has largely influenced the [[European New Right]], in particular the French ''[[Nouvelle Droite]]'' and the German ''[[Neue Rechte]]''.<ref>{{cite book|title=Konservative Revolution und Neue Rechte: Rechtsextremistische Intellektuelle gegen den demokratischen Verfassungsstaat|last=Pfahl-Traughber|first=Armin|author-link=Armin Pfahl-Traughber|year=1998|publisher=Springer-Verlag|isbn=9783322973900 |pages=223–232}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Bar-On|2011|p=340}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|François|2017}}</ref>
 ==== Hungary ====
-In its first years, [[Jobbik]] held ultraconservative stances, promoting anticommunism and antiglobalism as some of its core principles, though it became more successful as its views became more moderate.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Polyakova |first=Alina |last2=Shekhovtsov |first2=Anton |date=Spring 2016 |title=On the Rise: Europe's Fringe Right |journal=[[World Affairs]] |volume=179 |issue=1 |pages=70-80}}</ref>
+In its first years, [[Jobbik]] held ultraconservative stances, promoting [[anti-communism]] and [[anti-globalism]] as some of its core tenets, though it became more successful as its views became more moderate.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Polyakova |first1=Alina |last2=Shekhovtsov |first2=Anton |date=Spring 2016 |title=On the Rise: Europe's Fringe Right |journal=[[World Affairs]] |volume=179 |issue=1 |pages=70–80|doi=10.1177/0043820016662746 |s2cid=151976322 }}</ref>
 == References ==
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 === Bibliography ===
-{{Refbegin|30em|indent=yes}}
+{{Refbegin}}
-*{{cite book |last1=Huntington |first1=John S. |title=Far-right Vanguard: The Radical Roots of Modern Conservatism |date= |publisher=[[University of Pennsylvania Press]] |year=2021 |isbn=9780812253474 |location=Philadelphia |pages=136}}
+* {{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=18tAEAAAQBAJ |last1=Huntington |first1=John S. |title=Far-right Vanguard: The Radical Roots of Modern Conservatism |publisher=[[University of Pennsylvania Press]] |year=2021 |isbn=9780812253474 |location=Philadelphia |pages=136}}
-{{refend}}
+{{Refend}}
 {{Conservatism navbox}}
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 [[Category:Right-wing ideologies]]
 [[Category:Far-right politics]]
+[[Category:Political extremism]]
 [[Category:Political terminology]]
 [[Category:Political spectrum]]