View source for St. Michael's Cathedral, Qingdao

{{Short description|Catholic church building in China}}
{{Infobox religious building
| name =St. Michael's Cathedral<br />Kathedrale St. Michael {{in lang|de}}<br /><small>{{lang|zh|圣弥爱尔大教堂}} {{in lang|zh}}</small>
| infobox_width =
| image =St_Michaels_Cathedral_West_Front.png
| image_upright=
| alt =A cathedral in neo-Romanesque style, with twin spires topped with crosses, stands against the blue sky.
| caption =[[Cathedral architecture of Western Europe#West front|West front]]
| map_type =China
| map_size =220
| map_caption =
| location =China
| coordinates = {{coord|36.067972|120.315611|display=inline,title}}
| religious_affiliation =[[Roman Catholic]]
| rite =
| region =
| state =
| province =[[Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Jinan|Jinan]]
| territory =
| prefecture =
| sector =
| district =[[Roman Catholic Diocese of Qingdao|Diocese of Qingdao]]
| cercle =
| municipality =[[Qingdao]]
| consecration_year =1934
| status =[[Cathedral]]
| functional_status =Active
| heritage_designation =1992
| leadership =Bishop [[Thomas Chen Tianhao]]
| website =
| architecture =yes
| architect =Alfred Fräbel, SVD
| architecture_type =Cathedral
| architecture_style =[[Romanesque architecture#Romanesque Revival|neo-Romanesque]]
| general_contractor =Arthur Bialucha
| facade_direction =Southwest
| groundbreaking =1931
| year_completed =1934
| construction_cost =
| specifications =yes
| capacity =1000+
| length ={{convert|65.9|m|ft}}
| width ={{convert|37.6|m|ft}}
| width_nave =
| height_max ={{convert|56|m|ft}}
| spire_quantity =2
| spire_height ={{convert|56|m|ft}}
| materials =
}}

'''St. Michael's Cathedral''' ({{langx|de|'''Kathedrale St. Michael'''}}; {{zh|s={{linktext|圣|弥|爱|尔|大|教|堂}}|p=Shèng Mí'ài'ěr Dàjiàotáng}}), also called the '''Zhejiang Road Catholic Church''' ({{zh|c=浙江路天主教堂}}), is a [[Catholic Church|Catholic]] church in [[Qingdao]] (Tsingtao), [[Shandong]] Province, China, and is the seat of the bishop of the [[Roman Catholic Diocese of Qingdao|Diocese of Qingdao]] (Tsingtao). It is located in the oldest part of Qingdao, at 15 Zhejiang Road, on the east side of Zhongshan Road in [[Shinan District]]. Built by [[Germany|German]] missionaries, the cathedral stands at the top of a hill in the center of the old German-built part of the city. It is the largest example of [[Romanesque architecture#Romanesque Revival|Romanesque Revival architecture]] in the province, resembling a German cathedral of the 12th century.

St. Michael's Cathedral is the product of a strong German presence in Shandong Province in the 19th and early 20th centuries. In the mid-19th century the European powers forcibly opened China to foreign trade. The [[Divine Word Missionaries]] built a church in the [[Jiaozhou Bay concession]] in Shandong in 1902, and in 1934 erected the cathedral, which remained nominally under their administration until 1964. In 1942 it came under the control of the [[Imperial Japanese Army|Japanese Army]], returning to Chinese control when the Japanese left Qingdao in 1945. In the early 1950s, all foreign missionaries, including the Bishop of Qingdao, were either imprisoned or expelled from China, and during the [[Cultural Revolution]] (1966–1976) the cathedral was defaced and abandoned. In 1981, it was repaired by the government and reopened for services, and in 1992 it was listed as a Provincial Historic Building by the government of Shandong Province.

==History==
After China's defeat in the [[First Opium War]], the country was forced to opened to foreign trade by a number of treaties collectively referred to as the [[Unequal Treaties]]. Following the [[Treaty of Nanjing]] (1842), the British established the first [[treaty ports]]. Following China's [[Concession (territory)|concession]] to the British Empire,Russia won concessions as well.<ref name="Britannica">{{cite encyclopedia |url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/603897/treaty-port |title=Treaty Port|author=Zhihou Xia |date=September 5, 2008 |encyclopedia=www.britannica.com |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=April 29, 2010}}</ref> Foreigners, who were centered in foreign sections of the cities, enjoyed legal [[extraterritoriality]] as stipulated in the Unequal Treaties. Foreign clubs, racecourses, and churches were established in major treaty ports. Some of these port areas were directly leased by foreign powers, such as the [[concessions in China]], effectively removing them from the control of local governments.<ref name="Britannica" />

===German presence in Qingdao===
{{Main|Kiautschou Bay concession}}
In the early 1890s, the German Empire had been considering occupying [[Jiaozhou Bay]] ("Jiaozhou" is romanized as Kiaochow, Kiauchau or Kiao-Chau in English and Kiautschou in German) for building its first naval base in East Asia in order to expand into the interior of Shandong.<ref name="Gerber">{{cite web |url=http://www.usfca.edu/uploadedFiles/Destinations/Institutes_and_Centers/pacificrim/perspectives/docs/v5n1/app_v5n1_gerber.pdf |title=The Role of German Missionaries in Post-Boxer North China |last1=Gerber |first1=Lydia |date=December 2004 |work=Asia Pacific: Perspectives |publisher=University of San Francisco |access-date=June 22, 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150227185035/http://www.usfca.edu/uploadedFiles/Destinations/Institutes_and_Centers/pacificrim/perspectives/docs/v5n1/app_v5n1_gerber.pdf |archive-date=February 27, 2015 }}</ref> In 1891 the [[Qing Dynasty|Qing government]] decided to make Qingdao (commonly spelled "Tsingtao") defensible against naval attack and began to improve the existing fortifications of the town. German naval officials observed and reported on this Chinese activity during a formal survey of Jiaozhou Bay in May 1897. In November 1897, the German Navy seized Jiaozhou Bay under the pretext of ensuring that reparations were paid for the murder of two German Catholic missionaries in the province.<ref name="Gerber" /><ref>{{cite book |title=By Order of the Kaiser, Otto von Diederichs and the Rise of the Imperial German Navy 1865–1902 |last=Gottschall |first=Terrell |year=2003 |publisher=Naval Institute Press |location=Annapolis |isbn=978-1-55750-309-1 |page=146 }}</ref> In the spring of 1898, the German government signed a treaty that allowed the Germans to lease an area of {{convert|540|km2|acre sqmi}} for 99 years (or until 1997, as the British did in Hong Kong's New Territories and the French did in Kouang-Tchéou-Wan), to construct a railway to [[Jinan]], the capital of Shandong province, and to exploit coalfields along the railroad.<ref name="Gerber" />

The [[Kiautschou Bay concession]], as it became known, existed from 1898 to 1914. With an area of {{convert|552|km2|acre sqmi}}, it was located in the imperial province of [[Shandong]] (alternatively romanized as Shantung or Shan-tung in English and Schantung in German) on the southern coast of the [[Shandong Peninsula]] (''Schantung-Halbinsel'') in northern China. Tsingtao (Qingdao) was its administrative center. After the farmers and fishermen of the Chinese village sold their buildings and land and resettled in the rural communities further east,<ref name="Matzat1">{{cite web |url=http://www.tsingtau.org/landmann-gottfried-1860-1926-uhrmacher-optiker-bierbrauer/ |title=Landmann Gottfried 1860–1926 Uhrmacher, Optiker, Bierbrauer |language=de |trans-title=Gottfried Landmann, 1860–1926: Watchmaker, Optician, Beer Brewer |last1=Matzat |first1=Wilhelm |date= May 2003 |work=tsingtau.org |publisher=Wilhelm Matzat |access-date=June 9, 2010}}</ref> the Germans began to develop the area. Wide streets, solid housing areas, government buildings, electrification throughout, a sewer system and a safe drinking water supply were improvements that transformed the impoverished fishing village of Tsingtao into a modern German town.<ref name="Matzat1" /><ref name="Flagge">{{cite book |last1=Schultz-Naumann |first1=Joachim |title=Unter Kaisers Flagge: Deutschlands Schutzgebiete im Pazifik und in China einst und heute |trans-title=Under the Kaiser's Flag: Germany's Protectorates in the Pacific and in China then and today |year=1985 |publisher=Universitas |language=de |isbn=978-3-8004-1094-1 |page=183}}</ref> In a short time the area had the highest density of schools and ''per capita'' student enrollment in all of China; primary, secondary and vocational schools were funded by the [[German Empire|Imperial German]] treasury and [[Protestant]] and Roman Catholic missions.<ref name="Flagge" />

[[File:Qingdao Catholic Mission.jpg|right|thumb|alt=A black and white photograph, taken from an oblique view of the SVD Mission Hall|Society of the Divine Word Mission Hall in 1902]]
The cathedral was built by the [[Divine Word Missionaries]] (abbreviated "SVD," from their Latin name: ''Societas Verbi Divini''), the first German Catholic missionary society. The order was founded in 1875 "for the propagation of the Catholic religion among pagan nations," at [[Steyl]] (today in the [[Limburg (Netherlands)|Limburg Province]] of the Netherlands), by German Catholic priests fleeing the [[Kulturkampf]].<ref name=CE>{{cite web |url=http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/05054a.htm |title=Society of the Divine Word in the Catholic Encyclopedia|author=Limbrock, E. |year=1909 |work=www.newadvent.org |publisher=New Advent |access-date=March 8, 2010}}</ref> The society's first mission was established in 1882 in southern Shantung, a district of more than 10&nbsp;million people, which contained 158 Catholics.<ref name=CE /> At the time, the area was part of the [[Apostolic Vicariate]] of Shantung, managed by Italian [[Franciscan]]s, who were tasked with rebuilding the earlier Catholic mission work. However, the mission work proceeded slowly, due to insufficient personnel and resources. The southern half of the province, in particular, had been all but neglected.<ref name="RGT">{{cite book |last1=Tiedemann |first1=Roger G. |editor1-first=W.F. |editor1-last=Vande Walle |editor2-first=Noël |editor2-last=Golvers |title=The History of the Relations between the Low Countries and China in the Qing Era (1644–1911) |series=Leuven Chinese Studies |volume=14 |year=2003 |publisher=Leuven University Press |isbn=978-90-5867-315-2 |pages= 271–298 |chapter=Shandong Missions and the Dutch Connection 1860–1919}}</ref> Consequently, it was transferred to the SVD on December 2, 1885, and became the [[Vicariate Apostolic of Southern Shan-tung]]. The new vicariate apostolic was headquartered in [[Yanzhou]], Shandong, and headed by Bishop [[Johann Baptist von Anzer]], SVD, who led it until November 24, 1903.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.gcatholic.org/dioceses/diocese/yenc0.htm |title=Yanzhou (兖州) |date= May 2010  |work=www.gcatholic.org |publisher=gcatholic.org |access-date=May 10, 2010 }}</ref> By 1907, the mission numbered 35,378&nbsp;Catholics and 36,367 [[catechumen]]s,<ref name=CE /> and by 1924, 106,000&nbsp;Catholics and 44,000&nbsp;catechumens.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://archives.catholic.org.hk/In%20Memoriam/Clergy-Brother/J-Freinademetz.htm |title=Divine Word Missionary Who Will Be Canonised Is Known for His Love of China |date=August 31, 2003 |publisher=Hong Kong Catholic Diocesan Archives |access-date=March 8, 2010}}</ref> The SVD's presence in Qingdao was first recorded when the mission purchased land there in 1899 and began building a mission hall.<ref name="chinaculture.org">{{cite web |url=http://www.chinaculture.org/library/2008-02/04/content_25574.htm |title=St. Emil Church |work=ChinaCulture.org |publisher=Ministry of Culture, People's Republic of China |access-date=May 15, 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110819015942/http://www1.chinaculture.org/library/2008-02/04/content_25574.htm |archive-date=August 19, 2011 }}</ref>

===Design and construction===
[[File:St. Michaels Cathedral 1935.png|right|thumb|200px|alt=A black and white photograph of Saint Michael's Cathedral, from the front, with twin bell towers flanking the doorway|The exterior of St. Michael's Cathedral in 1935]]

In autumn 1898 Bishop von Anzer had Father Franz Bartels<ref group="note">Father Franz Bartels's Chinese name was Bai Mingde, as per: {{cite book |last1=Tiedemann |first1=R.G. |editor1-first=Ku Weit |editor1-last=Ying |editor2-first=Koen |editor2-last=De Ridder |title=Authentic Chinese Christianity, Preludes to Its Development: Nineteenth & Twentieth Centuries |series=Leuven Chinese Studies |volume=9 |date=May 2001 |publisher=Leuven University Press |isbn=978-90-5867-102-8 |page=119 |chapter=Conversion Patterns in North China: Sociological Profiles of Chinese Christians 1860–1912}} Several sources mention him by his Chinese name only.</ref> appointed as pastor in Qingdao. Bishop von Anzer also commissioned Bartels with planning and constructing the Catholic mission. Bartels initially stayed in a house that was part of a [[Taoism|Taoist]] temple. Adjacent to his house he had a provisional chapel built which served as a place of worship/service for the European inhabitants of Qingdao until 1902 when a mission hall with a chapel was built. Major Kopka von Lossow, commander of the Third Sea Battalion which was stationed in Qingdao, ordered about a hundred of his men to attend services every Sunday.<ref name="Kim">{{cite book |last1=Kim |first1=Chun-Shik |title=Deutscher Kulturimperialismus in China: deutsches Kolonialschulwesen in Kiautschou (China) 1898–1914 |trans-title=German Cultural imperialism in China: German colonial education in Kiaochow (China) from 1898 to 1914 |year=2004 |publisher=Franz Steiner Verlag |location=Stuttgart |language=de |isbn=3-515-08570-X |pages= 106–107}}</ref>

On a hill chosen by Bishop von Anzer,<ref name="Kim" /> Father Bartels purchased some land on Qufu Road, having a printing house and the SVD mission hall erected in 1902.<ref name="chinaculture.org" /><ref name="Warner">{{cite book |title=German Architecture in China: Architectural Transfer |last=Warner |first=Torsten|year=1994 |publisher=Ernst & Sohn |location=Berlin |isbn=3-433-02429-4 |page=248}}</ref> The mission hall was converted to a school<ref group="note">Dexian Primary School, on Dexian road.</ref> in 1922,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.qdda.gov.cn/oldqingdao.do?method=preview&subjectid=12259376569844725001&rootID=12259393205621563001&ID=26448 |script-title=zh:斯泰尔修会圣言会会馆 |trans-title=Steyl SVD Mission Hall |language=zh |work=www.qdda.gov.cn |publisher=Qingdao Municipal Archives |access-date=May 15, 2010 |archive-date=June 30, 2012 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120630183619/http://www.qdda.gov.cn/oldqingdao.do?method=preview&subjectid=12259376569844725001&rootID=12259393205621563001&ID=26448 |url-status=dead }}</ref> and was operating as of May 2010.

The Holy Ghost Convent was also built on the same hill, occupied by Franciscan sisters who worked as nurses and teachers.<ref name="Kim" />

The cathedral's original architect (commissioned by Bishop Augustin Henninghaus) designed a three-aisled [[Gothic architecture|Gothic]] church,<ref name="Warner" /> but the World War&nbsp;I [[Siege of Tsingtao|conquest of Qingdao]] by the Japanese on November 16, 1914, put an end to the cathedral plans.<ref name="Old Qingdao">{{cite web |url=http://www.qdda.gov.cn/oldqingdao.do?method=preview&subjectid=12259376569844725001&rootID=12259393205621563001&ID=26417 |title=圣弥爱尔大教堂 |trans-title=St. Michael's Cathedral |language=zh |author={{lang|zh|李明}} (Li Ming) |work=www.qdda.gov.cn |publisher=Qingdao Municipal Archives |access-date=May 8, 2010 |archive-date=November 30, 2012 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20121130113819/http://www.qdda.gov.cn/oldqingdao.do?method=preview&subjectid=12259376569844725001&rootID=12259393205621563001&ID=26417 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The city reverted to Chinese rule in December 1922, under control of the [[Republic of China (1912–1949)|Republic of China]]. The Vicariate Apostolic of Southern Shan-tung was renamed the Vicariate Apostolic of Yanzhoufu on December 13, 1924, and on February 22, 1925, the [[Apostolic Prefect]]ure of Qingdao was established from its territory, with Bishop [[Georg Weig]], SVD, appointed prefect on March 18 of that same year. On June 14, 1928, it was elevated to a vicariate apostolic.<ref name="Ordinaries">{{cite web |url=http://www.gcatholic.org/dioceses/diocese/tsin2.htm |title=Diocese of Qingdao (青島) |date= May 2010  |work=www.gcatholic.org |publisher=gcatholic.org |access-date=May 10, 2010 }}</ref> When construction resumed, the original Gothic plan no longer seemed appropriate for the modern townscape of Qingdao. Father Alfred Fräbel designed the present neo-Romanesque structure,<ref name="Warner" /><ref name="Old Qingdao" /> built during the tenure of Bishop Weig, who is entombed in the cathedral.<ref name="Old Qingdao" />

Construction began on May 5, 1931, under Brother Theophorus Kleemann, SVD, who became ill and died on September 12, 1931; Arthur Bialucha, a German architect living in Qingdao who had already completed several projects for the SVD, took over as construction superintendent.<ref name="Bialucha">{{cite web |url=http://www.tsingtau.org/bialucha-arthur-1880-1947-architekt/ |title= Bialucha, Arthur (1880–1947), Architekt |language=de |trans-title=Bialucha, Arthur (1880–1947), Architect |last1=Matzat |first1=Wilhelm |date= May 2003 |work=tsingtau.org |publisher=Wilhelm Matzat |access-date=June 17, 2010}}</ref> Construction was frustrated in 1933, when [[Adolf Hitler]] came to power in Germany and prohibited the transfer of money overseas.<ref name="Old Qingdao" /> The diocese independently shouldered the cost of finishing the cathedral. This required a number of design changes to reduce costs.<ref name="Old Qingdao" /> The changes are evident in drawings published before completion of construction, which show the roofs of the towers as bell-shaped. However, the roofs of the completed structure were changed to spires.<ref name="Warner" /> Construction was finished in 1934, and the cathedral was consecrated on October 28 that year.<ref name="Bialucha" />

Some sources state that St. Michael's Cathedral was originally named "St. Emil's Church".<ref group="note" name="travel">For example, [http://www.chinaculture.org/library/2008-02/04/content_25574.htm chinaculture.org]  {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110819015942/http://www1.chinaculture.org/library/2008-02/04/content_25574.htm |date=2011-08-19 }} and travel websites (e.g. [http://blog.asiahotels.com/things-to-do-in-qingdao/st-emil-church/ AsiaHotels] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110707175224/http://blog.asiahotels.com/things-to-do-in-qingdao/st-emil-church/ |date=2011-07-07 }})</ref> A Latin inscription over the tomb of Bishop Weig states that the cathedral was consecrated to [[St. Michael the Archangel]] in 1934. In addition, a photo taken in 1935, currently in the [[German Federal Archives]]<ref group="note">The photo is designated as ''Bundesarchiv Bild'' (Federal Archive Image) 137-041054, and is available online at Wikimedia Commons</ref> is labeled "St. Michaels Kirche" (''St. Michael's Church''), and authoritative secondary print sources make no mention of "St. Emil's Church".<ref name="Warner" /><ref name="{{lang|zh|青岛优秀建筑}}" />

===1938–1949: occupation, liberation, and civil war===
The Japanese reoccupied Qingdao in January 1938.<ref name="WWII">{{cite web|url=http://english.qingdao.gov.cn/n2043295/n2048678/268950.html|title=Qingdao Profile|work=Qingdao Government Affairs Online|publisher=Qingdao Municipal Government|access-date=April 29, 2010|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100218131441/http://english.qingdao.gov.cn/n2043295/n2048678/268950.html|archive-date=February 18, 2010}}</ref> Bishop [[Thomas Tien Ken-sin]], SVD, was appointed Vicariate Apostolic of Qingdao, in November 1942, as Bishop Georg Weig had died the year before. That year, the Japanese placed a large sign over the main door of the cathedral that read "Under Management of the Japanese Army".<ref name="Old Qingdao" /> On August 15, 1945, Japan surrendered to Allied forces, officially ending World War&nbsp;II,<ref>{{cite book |last= Hakim |first= Joy |title= A History of Us: War, Peace and all that Jazz |publisher= Oxford University Press |year= 1995 |location= New York |isbn  = 0-19-509514-6 }}</ref> and in September 1945, Qingdao was liberated by forces of the [[Kuomintang]], restoring the government of the [[Republic of China (1912–1949)|Republic of China]].<ref name="WWII" /> The following year, on February 18, 1946, Bishop Tien was elevated to [[Cardinal (Catholicism)|cardinal]], becoming the first Chinese cardinal and to date the only SVD cardinal. He traveled to [[Vatican City]] to accept the honor. His vicariate apostolic was elevated to the [[Roman Catholic Diocese of Qingdao|Diocese of Qingdao]] on April 11.<ref name="Ordinaries" /> Upon his return on May 27, he was greeted by representatives of the government of Shandong Province, who had arranged a welcome in his honor, with the [[United States Marine Band]] playing outside the main entrance of the cathedral.<ref name="Old Qingdao" /> The Marine Band was attached to [[United States Seventh Fleet|Naval Forces Western Pacific]], headquartered in Qingdao at the time.<ref>{{Cite thesis |degree=Ph. D. |title=U.S. Marines in Qingdao: Military-Civilian Interaction, Nationalism, and China's Civil War 1945–1949 |last=Yang |first=Zhiguo |year=1998 |publisher=University of Maryland }}</ref> During the [[Chinese Civil War|Civil War]] period (1946–1949), missionaries in Shandong Province experienced growing tensions with the Communists, spurring one of them, Father [[:de:Augustin Olbert|Augustin Olbert]], SVD, to write:

{{quote|The Reds do not slacken and will in the end remain victorious. Almost the entire province is in their hands. For the time being they still give face, but when they are firmly established, they will no doubt show us their teeth, as they are already doing in some areas. We are facing the future with much anxiety. Most missionaries are convinced that, once the Reds are in power, they will expel us all.<ref name="Shandong 1950">{{cite book |last1=Tiedemann |first1=Gerhard |editor1-first=Ulrich |editor1-last=van der Heyden |editor2-first=Holger |editor2-last=Stoecker |title=Mission und Macht im Wandel politischer Orientierungen: Europaische Missionsgesellschaften in politischen Spannungsfeldern in Afrika und Asien zwischen 1800 und 1945 |trans-title=Mission and Power amidst Shifting Political Orientations: European Missions in Areas of Conflict in Africa and Asia, 1800–1945 |publisher=Franz Steiner Verlag |language=de |isbn=978-3-515-08423-9 |page=60 |chapter=Adaptation and Resistance in North China |year=2005 }}</ref>}}
Father Olbert was appointed Bishop of Qingdao two years later.<ref name="Ordinaries" />

On June 2, 1949, the [[People's Liberation Army]] entered Qingdao and both the city and Shandong Province have since been under [[Communist Party of China|Communist]] control.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2007-08/10/content_6020685.htm |title=History of Qingdao |author=Xu Jing |date=10 August 2007 |work=www.chinadaily.com.cn |publisher=China Daily |access-date=May 11, 2010}}</ref> Bishop Tien fled to Taiwan with the [[Kuomintang]] government.

===1949–1976: Under Mao===
[[File:Bishop Georg Weig Tomb.JPG|right|thumb|alt=Two dark granite slabs separated by a light granite bas relief cross; Chinese writing on the left slab and the Latin translation on the right slab. |Bishop Georg Weig's tombstone, set into a wall in the north transept. The damage visible was caused during the Cultural Revolution.]]
Soon after the Communists assumed control, a combination of assertive nationalism and socialist ideology led to the eradication of the Western presence in China, including Western culture and products. "The denunciation of anything Western as 'capitalist,' '[[bourgeois]]' and representative of the '[[imperialism|imperialist]] world' reached a peak during the ideological extremism of the [[Korean War]] (1950–1953) when the final vestiges of the Western economic and cultural presence were eradicated."<ref>{{cite journal |last=Hooper |first=Beverly |date=December 2000 |title=Globalization and Resistance in Post-Mao China: The Case of Foreign Consumer Products |journal=Asian Studies Review |volume=24 |issue=4 |page=442 |publisher=Blackwell Publishing |issn=1035-7823 |url=http://www.blackwellpublishing.com/content/BPL_Images/Journal_Samples/ASRE1035-7823~24~4~086/086.pdf |access-date=May 15, 2010 |doi=10.1080/10357820008713286 |s2cid=143106032 |archive-date=June 6, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110606102328/http://www.blackwellpublishing.com/content/BPL_Images/Journal_Samples/ASRE1035-7823~24~4~086/086.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> Missionary and Communist ambitions simply were irreconcilable and the wide ideological gap could not be bridged. The stage had been set for the Communists' catastrophic assault on the missionary enterprise during the Civil War period (1946–1949) and the expulsion of virtually all foreigners in the early 1950s.<ref name="Shandong 1950" /> Foreign missionaries who were suspected of being spies were arrested. Missionary institutes funded by foreign money were closed down and all foreign missionaries expelled from China.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Leung |first=Beatrice |year=1995 |title=Religious Freedom and the Constitution in the People's Republic of China: Interpretation and Implementation |journal=DISKUS: The On-disk Journal of International Religious Studies |volume=3 |issue=1 |publisher=Philipps-Universität Marburg |issn=0967-8948 |url=http://web.uni-marburg.de/religionswissenschaft/journal/diskus/leung.html |access-date=May 15, 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080623095304/http://web.uni-marburg.de/religionswissenschaft/journal/diskus/leung.html |archive-date=June 23, 2008 }}</ref> The SVD mission was not spared this fate. In 1951, the Diocese of Qingdao's Bishop Augustin Olbert, SVD, was arrested, served 22 months in prison, and was then deported to Germany in 1953. Although the cathedral was closed by the government, Bishop Olbert remained Bishop of Qingdao until his death in 1964.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.catholic-hierarchy.org/bishop/bolb.html |title=Bishop Augustin Olbert, SVD †|work=www.catholic-hierarchy.org |publisher=Catholic-Hierarchy |access-date=May 15, 2010 }}</ref> Native Chinese clergy were not spared the government's Marxian contempt for religion during this period. Future Bishop of Qingdao Li Mingshu was sent to prison the same year Bishop Olbert was deported, and not released from labor camps until 1968.<ref name="Li">{{cite web |url=http://eglasie.mepasie.org/asie-du-nord-est/chine/shandong-ordination-dun-eveque-officiel-pour-le |title=Shandong: ordination d'un évêque "officiel" pour le diocèse de Qingdao après huit années de vacance |date=Sep 2000 |work=eglasie.mepasie.org |publisher=Eglises D'Asie |language=fr |trans-title=Shandong: Bishop's ordination "official" for the Diocese of Qingdao after an eight year vacancy |access-date=June 17, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110614135517/http://eglasie.mepasie.org/asie-du-nord-est/chine/shandong-ordination-dun-eveque-officiel-pour-le |archive-date=2011-06-14 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Sweeping arrests of Chinese bishops, priests, sisters and laity did not begin, however, until 1955. Afterwards, the Catholic resistance movement, encountering mass arrests and sentences to forced labor, was forced underground. Professor Jean-Paul Wiest, Research Associate at the Centre for the Study of Religion and Chinese Society wrote: "The witness of Bishop [[Ignatius Kung Pin-Mei|Gong Pinmei]] of Shanghai and many others who chose jail, labor camps, and even death for the sake of their faith and their loyalty to the pope would sustain countless people in the years ahead."<ref name="RCCinChina">{{cite conference|url=http://www.usccb.net/church-updates/UnderstandingRCCinChina.pdf |title=Understanding the Roman Catholic Church in China |last1=Wiest |first1=Jean-Paul |date=June 20, 2002 |publisher=U.S. Catholic China Bureau |location=Hong Kong |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140211082354/http://www.usccb.net/church-updates/UnderstandingRCCinChina.pdf |archive-date=February 11, 2014 }}</ref>

By late 1957, due to the prior expulsion of foreign clergy and the subsequent imprisonment of Chinese clergy, 120 out of 145 dioceses and prefectures apostolic were without ordinaries.<ref name="RCCinChina" /> The Diocese of Qingdao went without an [[Ordinary (Catholic Church)|ordinary]] until the state-run [[Chinese Patriotic Catholic Association]] consecrated and appointed Bishop Paul Han Xirang, [[Order of Friars Minor|OFM]], without papal sanction in 1988.<ref name="Han Xirang">{{cite web |url=http://www.bishops-in-china.com/default.asp?iId=JMLEM |title=Katholische Bischöfe in China |first=Andreas |last=Brender |publisher=Andreas Brender |language=de |trans-title=Catholic Bishops in China |access-date=May 10, 2010}}</ref>

The cathedral was badly damaged during the [[Cultural Revolution]] which lasted from 1966 to 1971. During this time St. Michael's Cathedral was defaced by the [[Red Guards (China)|Red Guards]]. The crosses topping the twin [[Steeple (architecture)|steeples]] were removed by the Red Guards, with two men falling to their deaths during the removal.<ref name="88gogo">{{cite web |url=http://www.88gogo.com/ParkticketView_22523.html |script-title=zh:青岛天主教堂 |publisher=88gogo.com |language=zh |trans-title=Qingdao Catholic Church |access-date=May 17, 2010 |archive-date=July 7, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110707070022/http://www.88gogo.com/ParkticketView_22523.html |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="mafengwo">{{cite web |url=http://www.mafengwo.cn/mdd/wiki_list.php?mddid=10444 |script-title=zh:青岛攻略 |publisher=mafengwo.cn |language=zh |trans-title=Qingdao Raiders |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100411040959/http://www.mafengwo.cn/mdd/wiki_list.php?mddid=10444|archive-date=2010-04-11|access-date=May 17, 2010 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="Qingdao News">{{cite web|url=http://club.qingdaonews.com/showAnnounce_1038_3801228_1_0.htm|title=汪稼明：青岛老房子的故事|author={{lang|zh|汪稼明}}|date=Sep 2002|work=www.qingdaonews.com|publisher=Qingdao News|language=zh|trans-title=Wang Jia-Ming: The story of an old house in Qingdao|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110715134837/http://club.qingdaonews.com/showAnnounce_1038_3801228_1_0.htm|archive-date=2011-07-15|access-date=May 17, 2010|url-status=dead}}</ref> An account of the cathedral's defacement is translated as follows:
{{quote|One day, scaffolding was tied to the church steeples. People said that the crosses would be removed. The news spread throughout the city. Numerous people watched from windows, from the streets, from the beaches, and from the mountaintops as several small, ghostlike figures climbed up to the crosses. Against the blue sky they opened a saw. It was said that by evening, two people had fallen from the tower and died on the spot. People also say that this church held one of the greatest [[pipe organ]]s in China. They say that when it played, the whole city could hear its music. But this rare treasure was also destroyed by the Red Guards.

The next morning, seeing the towers of the church, the steeple had been denuded, and the towers were bald, like the shaved heads of criminals. The onlookers felt extremely uncomfortable, as if the whole area had been corrupted; made evil. Not long after that, I occasionally passed by the church and was astonished to see the topped crosses: what originally appeared to be two thin needles [when viewed from the towers] was actually the size of two coarse, heavy men, one taller than the other. Since then, the cathedral has become a warehouse.<ref name="88gogo" /><ref name="mafengwo" /><ref name="Qingdao News" />}} The original crosses were rescued by local Catholics and buried in the hills.<ref name="LP">{{cite book | url = https://archive.org/details/lonelyplanetchin00dami| url-access = registration|title=China |last=Harper |first=Damien |year=2007 |publisher=Lonely Planet |isbn=978-1-74059-915-3 |page=[https://archive.org/details/lonelyplanetchin00dami/page/225 225] }}</ref> The 2400-pipe organ destroyed by the Red Guards had been one of the two largest in Asia.<ref name="Interior1">{{cite web |url=http://qingdao.chinadaily.com.cn/2010-02/26/content_9509733.htm |title=St. Michael's Cathedral |date=26 February 2010 |publisher=China Daily |access-date=June 16, 2010}}</ref>

===Restoration===
[[File:Cathedral of Qingdao Cathedra adj.JPG|thumb|alt=A polished wooden chair on a raised dais, under a polished wooden canopy trimmed with crimson curtains|The ''[[cathedra]]'' of the Bishop of Qingdao]]
The [[Chinese Communist Party]] (CCP) subsequently repudiated the Cultural Revolution. A major document presented at the September 1979 Fourth Plenum of the [[11th National Congress of the Chinese Communist Party]], gave a "preliminary assessment" of the entire 30-year period of CCP rule. At the plenum, party Vice Chairman [[Ye Jianying]] declared the Cultural Revolution "an appalling catastrophe" and "the most severe setback to [the] socialist cause since [1949]."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www-chaos.umd.edu/history/prc4.html |title=The People's Republic Of China: IV |author=Poon, Leon |work=History of China |access-date=April 4, 2010}}</ref> The CCP's condemnation of the Cultural Revolution culminated in the ''[[Resolution on Certain Questions in the History of Our Party since the Founding of the People's Republic of China|Resolution on Certain Questions in the History of Our Party Since the Founding of the People's Republic of China]]'', adopted by the sixth plenary session of the 11th Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party. This stated that "Comrade Mao Zedong was a great [[Marxism|Marxist]] and a great proletarian revolutionary, strategist and theorist. It is true that he made gross mistakes during the "cultural revolution", but, if we judge his activities as a whole, his contributions to the Chinese revolution far outweigh his mistakes. His merits are primary and his errors secondary."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.idcpc.org.cn/english/maozedong/comments.htm |title=Comrade Mao Zedong's Historical Role and Mao Zedong Thought --Resolution on Certain Questions in the History of Our Party Since the Founding of the People's Republic of China (abridged) |author=Sixth Plenary Session of the Eleventh Central Committee of the Communist Party of China |date=June 27, 1981 |publisher=Communist Party of China |access-date=April 4, 2010}}</ref>

The change in prevailing political views was favourable to St. Michael's Cathedral; the Chinese government funded the cathedral's restoration efforts.<ref name="chinaculture.org" /> New crosses were manufactured for the cathedral's restoration,<ref name="88gogo" /><ref name="mafengwo" /><ref name="Qingdao News" /> and "after several years of repair, [the cathedral] was re-opened in April 1981"<ref name="sign">{{Cite sign |title=St. Michael's Cathedral|medium=Sign|publisher=Roman Catholic Church|location=St. Michael's Cathedral Courtyard, Qingdao}}</ref> for religious worship. In May 1999 the church was opened to the general public, allowing entry when [[Mass (Catholic Church)|Mass]] or other liturgies are not being celebrated.<ref name="{{lang|zh|青岛优秀建筑}}" /> In 2005, city workers repairing water pipes accidentally found the original crosses buried on Longshan Road, not far from the cathedral. They are currently stored in the north [[transept]]. The cathedral has been listed on the register of Provincial Historic Buildings by the government of Shandong Province since 1992.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Flath |first1=James |year=2002 |title=Managing Historical Capital in Shandong: Museum, Monument, and Memory in Provincial China |journal=The Public Historian |publisher=UC Press |volume=24 |issue=2 |pages=41–59 |doi=10.1525/tph.2002.24.2.41 |url=http://ir.lib.uwo.ca/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1549&context=historypub }}</ref>

The change in prevailing political views also allowed for rapprochement with Chinese clergy formerly imprisoned during the Cultural Revolution. In 1985 Li Mingshu was allowed an official post teaching at the seminary of Jinan. In 1994 he was transferred to the service of the Diocese of Qingdao, and was appointed the Bishop of Qingdao in 2000. Upon his consecration as bishop, he took the name "Joseph".<ref name="Li" />

==Description==

===Exterior and plan===
[[File:St Michaels Urban Context.png|thumb|right|alt=A street with Saint Michael's Cathedral rising in the distance. Cars are parked along one side of the street, and a row of four story buildings stand along the other side.|St. Michael's Cathedral, 2009, in its urban context]]
[[File:圣弥额尔主教座堂 Kathedrale St. Michael.jpg|thumb|right|West façade, 2013]]
The cathedral stands atop a hill in the center of what was the original settlement of the city of Qingdao, at 15 Zhejiang Road (formerly Bremen Strasse<ref name="Old Qingdao" />) on the east side of Zhongshan Road in Shinan District. The church is built in the historic style of German Romanesque. It is [[cruciform]] in plan, having a nave flanked by a lower single aisle on either side, crossed by a transept, and with a semi-circular apse projecting at the east end.

The cathedral is {{convert|65.9|m|ft}} long and the transept is {{convert|37.6|m|ft}} wide, with an exterior height of {{convert|18|m|ft}}. The towers are {{convert|56|m|ft}} in height,<ref name="{{lang|zh|青岛优秀建筑}}">{{cite book |title=青岛优秀建筑|author1={{lang|zh|青岛市史志办公室}} |author2={{lang|zh|青岛市建设委员会}} |year=2006 |publisher={{lang|zh|出版社}} |language=zh |trans-title=Annals of Outstanding Architecture in Qingdao|isbn=978-7-5436-2504-4 |pages= 102–103 }}</ref> and have [[Rhenish helm]] spires, each topped by a {{convert|4.5|m|ft|adj=on}} cross.<ref name="Xinhua"/> One tower contains a single large bell, and the other three smaller bells.<ref name="sign" />

The [[Cathedral architecture of Western Europe#West front|west front]] rises to a balustrade between the towers at {{convert|30|m|ft}}.<ref name="sign" /> It has three portals, with a [[rose window]] above the central one.<ref name="Xinhua"/> The building materials are reinforced concrete and granite, and the roofs are red tiles.<ref name="Xinhua">{{cite web |url=http://www.sd.xinhuanet.com/news/2007-08/07/content_10805633.htm |script-title=zh:青岛旅游：天主教堂 |trans-title=Qingdao Tourism: Catholic Church |language=zh |date=7 August 2007 |work=www.sd.xinhuanet.com |publisher=Xinhua News |access-date=May 17, 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720032404/http://www.sd.xinhuanet.com/news/2007-08/07/content_10805633.htm |archive-date=20 July 2011 }}</ref>

In his book, ''German Architecture in China'', Warner Torsten writes of the cathedral: <blockquote>According to residents] the cathedral is far too large for the scale of Qingdao. Its position on top of a hill makes this even more evident. Perhaps the idea was to produce a powerful building to hold its own with the Protestant Church, which for 20 years had been the largest religious building in Qingdao, or perhaps the intention was to outstrip the 46&nbsp;metre-high towers of the Franciscan church in Jinan. The towers of the cathedral in Qingdao were higher than all the other churches in the major cities of Northern China&nbsp;– [[Tianjin]], Beijing, [[Dalian]], or [[Jinan]]. They dominate the silhouette of Qingdao; they are particularly impressive from a ship entering the harbour.<ref name="Warner"/></blockquote>

===Interior===
[[File:St Michaels Cathedral Qingdao Interior.jpg|thumb|alt=The sanctuary of a cathedral. On a raised dais, the low altar stands, flanked by Christmas trees. Behind it, the high altar is visible, with the tabernacle on it. A ciborium is over the high altar, directly under an arch with a domed apse behind it.|Sanctuary of St. Michael's Cathedral, decorated for Christmas]]

The total floor area of St. Michael's Cathedral is {{convert|2740|m2|sqft}}.<ref name="chinaculture.org" /> While the exterior of the cathedral is neo-Romanesque, the interior has [[Pier (architecture)|piers]] and [[arch]]es of a [[Classical revival]] style. Above the {{convert|12|m|ft|adj=on}} high nave and transept is an unvaulted [[Coffer|coffered ceiling]]. Narrow vaults over the two aisles are so much lower than the nave that they function like [[ambulatory|ambulatories]].<ref name="Warner" /><ref name="Old Qingdao" /> The nave can hold 1,000 people.<ref name="{{lang|zh|青岛优秀建筑}}" /> The [[baptismal font]] and statues have captions in English and Chinese.<ref name="LP" />

The nave extends into a high vaulted [[apse]] (pictured right) at the [[Architectural development of the eastern end of cathedrals in England and France|east end]]. The aisles on either side of the nave are continued around the apse, making an ambulatory. Seven chandeliers are suspended from the ceiling over the main aisle.<ref name="88gogo" /> Beneath the chancel arch stands the high altar, under an ornate [[baldachin]]. The [[Ciborium (architecture)|ciborium]] over the high altar bears the Latin words ''Venite Adoremus Dominum'',<ref name="Interior1" /> "Come adore the Lord." Within the sanctuary stands a second, portable, altar, upon which most masses are celebrated.

According to [[Lonely Planet]], "The interior is splendid, with white walls, gold piping&nbsp;… and a marvellously painted apse."<ref name="LP" />
[[File:Jaeger Brommer Cathedral Qingdao.jpg|thumb|left|alt=Interior of the end of the cathedral showing the main door with a choir loft above it on which stands a large pipe organ above which is a blue rose window with a dove at its centre|Interior, looking west, showing the Jäger & Brommer pipe organ]]
The [[mural]] painted on the dome of the apse (pictured right) depicts Jesus seated on a cloud, red and golden rays radiating out of his golden [[Halo (religious iconography)|halo]]. [[God the Father]], pictured as a white-bearded man with triangular halo, looks down from a cloud above Jesus. A dove with a white halo, representing the [[Holy Spirit]],<ref>{{cite book |title=Catechism of the Catholic Church |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780385508193 |edition=Second |date=March 2003 |publisher=Doubleday Religion |isbn=978-0-385-50819-3 |ref=Part 1, Section 2, Chapter 3, Article 8, Paragraph 701 }}</ref> flies just below God, wings outstretched, completing the [[Trinity]]. Above Jesus fly four [[cherubim]]. Seated to Jesus' right is [[Blessed Virgin Mary|Mary, his mother]], and to his left Saint [[John the Baptist]]. On the same cloud as Jesus, three angels flank on each side. Slightly below Jesus, Mary, and John, two more flanking angels are depicted kneeling on their own clouds and swinging [[censer]]s. Under the entire scene, a banner displays ''[[Gloria in Excelsis Deo]]''.<ref name="Interior1" />

In 2006, the construction and installation of a massive {{convert|12|x|12|m|ft|adj=on}} Jäger & Brommer pipe organ (pictured at left) was commissioned for St. Michael's Cathedral at a cost of 700,000 euros, to be ready in time for the [[2008 Olympics]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.thestandard.com.hk/news_detail.asp?pp_cat=11&art_id=58239&sid=16635739&con_type=1 |title=Most-loved Yuletide melody in spotlight |author=Pang, Damon |date=2007-12-07 |work=The Standard |access-date=January 2, 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110629171323/http://www.thestandard.com.hk/news_detail.asp?pp_cat=11&art_id=58239&sid=16635739&con_type=1 |archive-date=June 29, 2011 }}</ref> The pipe organ sits upon the choir loft over the [[Cathedral architecture of Western Europe#West front|west front]] entrance.<ref name="Old Qingdao" />

The north transept contains three large murals featuring [[Jesus Christ]]:<ref name="CCTV">{{cite web |url=http://en.yp.cctv.com/20080606/103800.shtml |title=St. Michael's Cathedral |date=2008-06-06 |publisher=China Central Television |access-date=May 17, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110708130336/http://en.yp.cctv.com/20080606/103800.shtml |archive-date=2011-07-08 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Jesus washing [[St. Peter]]'s feet, the [[Sacred Heart]], and the ''[[Pietà]]''. The north transept also contains the tombs of two bishops. One is of the first vicar apostolic of the [[Vicariate Apostolic]] of Qingdao, Bishop Georg Weig, [[Divine Word Missionaries|SVD]], who supervised the construction of the cathedral. Bishop Weig's tombstone shows obvious signs of defacement, being chipped around the edges, and with broken stonework at its base.<ref name="Weig Tomb">{{Cite sign|title=Tombstone of Georg Weig|date=1941|medium=Grave marker|publisher=Roman Catholic Diocese of Qingdao|location=Qingdao, China}}</ref> The other tomb contains part of the ashes of Bishop of Qingdao Paul Han Xirang, [[Franciscan|OFM]],<ref name="Han Tomb">{{Cite sign|title=Tombstone of Han Xirang|date=1992|medium=Grave marker|publisher=Roman Catholic Diocese of Qingdao|location=Qingdao, China}}</ref> the rest having been buried in his hometown, Han Village, [[Yucheng County]], Shandong Province.

The south transept also contains three large murals:<ref name="CCTV" /> the [[Child Jesus|Holy child]] praying, [[Thérèse de Lisieux|St. Thérèse of Lisieux]] (patroness of missions),<ref name="LP" /> and the [[Nativity of Jesus in art|Nativity]]. The north and south arms of the transept each contain two altars.<ref name="Old Qingdao" />

==Services==
The church is active and as of 2008 more than 10,000 Catholics in Qingdao attend services there.<ref name="CCTV" /> According to December 2009 and January 2010 church bulletins, mass is celebrated daily by Bishop Li Mingshu at 6&nbsp;am, with additional masses on Sunday and festivals on Easter and Christmas. Services are held in Korean and Chinese, with one Korean and several Chinese priests on site.<ref>St. Michael's Cathedral. December 25, 2009. Church Bulletin.</ref><ref>St. Michael's Cathedral. January 10, 2010. Church Bulletin.</ref>

==Ordinaries==
[[File:Han Xirang Tombstone.jpg|thumb|alt=A dark granite tombstone with Chinese writing|Bishop Paul Han Xirang's tombstone, set into a wall in the north transept]]

Below is a list of bishops who have reigned from St. Michael's Cathedral, since its consecration in 1934.
* [[Georg Weig]], SVD † (Appointed {{Nowrap|18 March}} 1925&nbsp;– Died {{Nowrap|3 October}} 1941)<ref name="Ordinaries"/>
* [[Thomas Tien Ken-sin]] (Tienchensing), SVD † (Appointed {{Nowrap|10 November}} 1942&nbsp;– {{Nowrap|11 April}} 1946 Appointed Archbishop of [[Beijing|Peking]])<ref name="Ordinaries" />
* [[Faustino M. Tissot]], [[Xaverian Missionary Fathers|SX]] † (Appointed 1946&nbsp;– Resigned 1947)<ref name="Ordinaries" />
* {{interlanguage link|Augustin Olbert|de}}, SVD † (Appointed {{Nowrap|8 July}} 1948<ref name="Ordinaries" />&nbsp;– Arrested 1951, Imprisoned Until 1953, then deported to Germany. Died 18 Nov 1964<ref name="Ordinaries" />)
* [[Paul Han Xirang]], OFM † (Appointed {{Nowrap|24 April}} 1988&nbsp;– Died {{Nowrap|6 March}} 1992)<ref name="Han Xirang" /> ''Note: Consecrated as bishop and appointed without papal mandate.''
* [[Joseph Li Mingshu]] (Appointed 2000)<ref name="Li" />

==Notes==
<references group="note" />

==References==
{{Reflist|colwidth=30em}}

==External links==
* {{Commons-inline|St. Michael's Cathedral, Qingdao}}

{{Asia in topic|Roman Catholicism in}}
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Saint Michael's Cathedral, Qingdao}}
[[Category:Roman Catholic churches completed in 1934]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures in Qingdao]]
[[Category:Divine Word Missionaries Order]]
[[Category:History of Qingdao]]
[[Category:Churches in Shandong]]
[[Category:Roman Catholic cathedrals in China]]
[[Category:Romanesque Revival church buildings in China]]
[[Category:Tourist attractions in Qingdao]]
[[Category:1902 establishments in the German colonial empire]]
[[Category:20th-century Roman Catholic church buildings in China]]