Liberation of France: Difference between revisions
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== Military organization== |
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The contribution to France's liberation made by French colonial African soldiers, who comprised 9% of the French army, has largely been ignored. The Gaullists made utilized their base in African territory to launch the military liberation. Among the populations colonized by France, it was African troops who made the largest contribution to the liberation campaign. <ref>Tony Chafer , "Forgotten Soldiers: Tony Chafer examines the paradoxes and complexities that underlie belated recognition of the contribution of African soldiers to the liberation of France in 1944" ''History Today'' 58#11 (November 2008).</ref> |
The contribution to France's liberation made by French colonial African soldiers, who comprised 9% of the French army, has largely been ignored. The Gaullists made utilized their base in African territory to launch the military liberation. Among the populations colonized by France, it was African troops who made the largest contribution to the liberation campaign. <ref>Tony Chafer , "Forgotten Soldiers: Tony Chafer examines the paradoxes and complexities that underlie belated recognition of the contribution of African soldiers to the liberation of France in 1944" ''History Today'' 58#11 (November 2008): 35–37.</ref><ref>Panivong Norindr, "Incorporating Indigenous Soldiers in the Space of the French Nation: Rachid Bouchareb's Indigènes." ''Yale French Studies'' 115 (2009): 126-140 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/25679759 online].</ref> |
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== Military campaigns == |
== Military campaigns == |
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| Liberation of France | |||
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 De Gaulle speaking from Cherbourg City Hall balcony 20 August 1944 | |||
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The Liberation of France is the period towards the end of the Second World War in which German-occupied France was progressively liberated by the Allied forces. France was mostly free by September 1944, with some clean-up operations continuing, especially along the Atlantic coast until the defeat of Nazi Germany in May 1945.
Background
This article is a WP:G#Parent article in WP:Summary style. Every section below should be a summary of a "Main" article appearing somewhere else, and identified by the target of the {{Main}} template. Please see WP:SS.
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Western Front
The second "{{Further}}" list is a list of French (or at least, foreign) wiki articles, here for convenience, and meant to be dropped before launch. The {{Main}} and "{{Further}}" list for each section with en-wiki links, can remain.
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Fall of France and rise of Vichy
French military tacticians had failed to predict the German invasion route through the Ardennes, considered impassible by tanks. French defenses swiftly crumbled as the Germans swept through the Lowlands and around the heavily fortified Maginot Line. The only question in French politics was whether to seek an armistice, fight on, or simply surrender. Pierre Laval wanted to fight on from North Africa but had no support and resigned rather than seek an armistice. The Assemblee voted to give World War I hero Philippe Petain the power to write a new constitution, which he interpreted as a of writ of absolute power. The government declared Oaris an open city and fled, establishing itself at Vichy in southern France.
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Aenean libero nulla, luctus quis ipsum vitae, porttitor egestas ex. Vestibulum ante ipsum primis in faucibus orci luctus et ultrices posuere cubilia curae; Curabitur lacus lorem, feugiat sit amet consequat non, hendrerit non sem. Aliquam at blandit metus. Suspendisse posuere sed risus nec interdum. Aenean ut interdum metus, vel dignissim nisl. Nunc eleifend egestas convallis. Aenean at ipsum vitae ex porttitor aliquet. Nunc blandit neque mauris, at vehicula nibh efficitur non. Integer consequat tincidunt aliquam.
Resistance
The Resistance was a decentralized organization of small cells of fighters with the tacit or overt support of many French civilians. Some were former Republican fighters from the Spanish Civil War; others were workers who went into hiding rather than report for the mandatory Service du travail obligatoire in Germany.[1] In the south of France especially, Resistance fighters took to the mountainous ‘’maquis’’ ("bush") and conducted guerilla warfare on the German occupation forces, cutting telephone lines and destroying bridges.
Vivamus quam massa, luctus sed luctus sed, viverra luctus lorem. Suspendisse eget orci sit amet purus egestas fermentum a vitae diam. Pellentesque sit amet lacus semper, vehicula risus a, consectetur ex. Donec porttitor id dui et feugiat. Nunc interdum, tellus id vestibulum ultrices, nisl lectus sagittis augue, ut rutrum nisl nibh in velit. Sed tristique diam risus, rhoncus euismod magna vestibulum eget. Maecenas congue quam dictum tortor hendrerit pretium. Fusce efficitur sapien nec dolor facilisis imperdiet. Donec ut nulla vel nisl condimentum accumsan. Phasellus et libero id nibh ornare pellentesque. Nulla mollis efficitur velit, quis molestie sapien eleifend id. Mauris eu porttitor libero. Morbi ultricies congue ex, placerat efficitur velit elementum id.
Sed posuere purus posuere, commodo odio sed, ullamcorper metus. Vestibulum ut orci venenatis metus eleifend mattis. Sed interdum leo a massa sodales varius. Pellentesque ut justo et nisl vestibulum cursus. Integer at lacus aliquam, accumsan tellus at, sollicitudin lacus. Curabitur sapien felis, lacinia ut lacus a, suscipit laoreet augue. Nullam porta ornare dolor vel posuere.
Operation Sledgehammer
Operation Sledgehammer was the first Allied plan for the invasion of German-occupied France, but was never carried out because resources were deemed insufficient.
Not sure we need this section. This was a planned operation that never was launched.
Military organization
Soldiers
The contribution to France's liberation made by French colonial African soldiers, who comprised 9% of the French army, has largely been ignored. The Gaullists made utilized their base in African territory to launch the military liberation. Among the populations colonized by France, it was African troops who made the largest contribution to the liberation campaign. [2][3]
Military campaigns
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Algeria – November 1942
Operation Torch was a three-pronged Allied assault against Vichy régime targets in North Africa. The landing forces of Operation Torch came in at Casablanca, Oran and Algiers.
Following Case Anton, French colonial governors had found themselves taking orders from the German military administration, and did so with varying degrees of enthusiasm. A few colonies such as French India pragmatically agreed that they did not wish to tangle with neighboring British colonies, which were larger and better-armed. Others had Axis neighbors, such as Tunisia or Somaliland. The American consul in Algiers believed that Vichy forces would welcome US forces.
Forces
A Western Task Force (aimed at Casablanca) was composed of American units, with Major General George S. Patton in command and Rear Admiral Henry Kent Hewitt heading the naval operations. This Western Task Force consisted of the U.S. 3rd and 9th Infantry Divisions, and two battalions from the U.S. 2nd Armored Division — 35,000 troops in a convoy of over 100 ships. They were transported directly from the United States in the first of a new series of UG convoys providing logistic support for the North African campaign.
The Center Task Force, aimed at Oran, included the U.S. 2nd Battalion, 509th Parachute Infantry Regiment, the U.S. 1st Infantry Division, and the U.S. 1st Armored Division—a total of 18,500 troops.
Eastern Task Force—aimed at Algiers—was commanded by Lieutenant-General Kenneth Anderson and consisted of a brigade from the British 78th and the U.S. 34th Infantry Divisions, along with two British commando units (No. 1 and No. 6 Commandos), together with the RAF Regiment providing 5 squadrons of infantry and 5 Light anti-aircraft flights, totalling 20,000 troops. During the landing phase, ground forces were to be commanded by U.S. Major General Charles W. Ryder, Commanding General (CG) of the 34th Division and naval forces were commanded by Royal Navy Vice-Admiral Sir Harold Burrough.
Corsica – 1943
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a.k.a Operation Vesuvius
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Battle of Normandy – June 1944
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Paris – August 1944
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Suspendisse enim augue, finibus sit amet lobortis ac, pretium sed ante. Duis sed lorem in libero euismod tincidunt a ut augue. Donec in urna sem. Curabitur pharetra eu nisl id malesuada. Integer consectetur diam vitae nunc porta bibendum ac sit amet justo. Suspendisse potenti. Mauris convallis, nisi eget hendrerit efficitur, ipsum nibh venenatis nunc, a dictum felis lectus et ligula. Suspendisse fringilla non felis a dignissim. Etiam et dolor convallis, interdum nisl vel, semper neque. Class aptent taciti sociosqu ad litora torquent per conubia nostra, per inceptos himenaeos. Ut tempor pellentesque posuere.
Southern France – August 1944
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Nulla facilisi. Duis pretium, est sed congue varius, purus nisl convallis nunc, at cursus nunc felis vulputate eros. In laoreet laoreet pharetra. Nulla eu imperdiet sem. Praesent faucibus est vitae dignissim aliquet. Sed id venenatis eros, in rhoncus justo. Curabitur sagittis, libero et eleifend mattis, libero nibh semper arcu, sed faucibus nisl mauris id nisi.
Donec laoreet maximus libero, vitae feugiat eros. Suspendisse varius, nisl sit amet iaculis iaculis, quam sem efficitur lacus, eu ultrices nulla ipsum ut nisl. Donec vulputate ut est at volutpat. Fusce neque orci, pellentesque in commodo ut, maximus ut eros. Morbi vestibulum scelerisque vehicula. Praesent condimentum eros id dolor congue, ac mattis nibh hendrerit. Vestibulum suscipit, odio in hendrerit fringilla, elit magna gravida urna, sed semper urna lectus eu sapien. Mauris metus erat, scelerisque et imperdiet consequat, aliquam ac lectus. Phasellus sed dui in ante ultrices accumsan a sed purus. Mauris efficitur suscipit arcu a molestie. Nunc placerat lectus et ipsum volutpat condimentum. Sed vel ex odio. In eget eleifend metus. Cras maximus, nibh in mattis lacinia, nisl felis hendrerit orci, vitae sagittis odio eros sed quam.
Pockets of German resistance – to May 1945
Siege, September 1944-May 1945 · Operation Vénérable · Operation Mousquetaire · final years of Battle of the Atlantic
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Victory
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Mauris finibus eros nec purus lobortis ornare. Suspendisse congue consequat urna sed vehicula. Nunc convallis, urna in ultrices vulputate, felis ante dictum risus, eget sollicitudin odio magna sit amet arcu. Nam augue quam, convallis in consectetur sit amet, vestibulum tempus mi. Vivamus sed elementum enim. Proin neque massa, hendrerit eget interdum nec, iaculis eget ligula. Suspendisse quam ante, rutrum ut semper ut, cursus eget lectus. Maecenas maximus luctus turpis, eget accumsan nisi posuere vel. Pellentesque laoreet odio at lorem interdum, semper ultrices massa gravida.
Aftermath
The subsections below overlap in time, and can't be put in strict chrono order, so the intro or first sentence of each should make it clear what the time range is for the subtopic.
Advance to the Rhine
The military aftermath was basically the Western Allies moved east, crossing the Rhine to invade Germany, while the Russian (also Allies) moved West, to Berlin, and the war in Europe ended May 7, 1945 (VE Day).
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Vivamus rhoncus iaculis enim pharetra pretium. Aliquam lobortis malesuada tellus, eget imperdiet risus placerat eleifend. Sed vel ex lacus. Cras mattis euismod odio, vitae imperdiet eros sodales eget. Vestibulum auctor auctor metus sit amet vestibulum. Duis facilisis, neque ultrices lacinia feugiat, mauris mauris consequat turpis, nec blandit enim dolor a purus. Cras id tortor vitae lacus rutrum sodales a sit amet lacus. Sed et metus ultricies, cursus tortor ultricies, scelerisque nunc. Maecenas eu odio sed diam facilisis interdum. Suspendisse nunc leo, venenatis id blandit nec, eleifend a elit. Sed consectetur, lacus nec tempor faucibus, risus neque dignissim mi, a efficitur sem justo dignissim turpis.
End of Vichy
The Vichy Government got quickly evacuated to Germany (Sigmaringen). They eventually were brought back to France and tried. Petain got the death penalty, but it was commuted because of his heroic acts in WW I.
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Justice and retribution
Meanwhile in France, the provisional govt took over, De Gaulle was in charge, and a period of reckoning began, with twin purges: a legal one (épuration légale) and a sometimes horrible settling of accounts, the épuration sauvage.
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Curabitur pulvinar sollicitudin lectus in blandit. Ut risus eros, ornare eu tortor quis, aliquam semper magna. Sed enim nunc, lacinia non est nec, tincidunt mollis nulla. Morbi ipsum elit, pulvinar ultricies velit et, elementum accumsan eros. Suspendisse potenti. Pellentesque rutrum rutrum dui sit amet congue. Duis viverra dolor et quam accumsan tristique. Class aptent taciti sociosqu ad litora torquent per conubia nostra, per inceptos himenaeos. Aliquam nunc nunc, blandit ac justo ac, eleifend tincidunt diam.
Elections of May 1945
The first elections since liberation were the municipal elections held while the armistice was being signed (May 1945), and women first gained the right to vote. Not clear if there's an English article that covers this topic.
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Provisional government
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Fourth Republic
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Mauris in nisl lacinia, viverra ante sed, convallis dui. Etiam magna ipsum, hendrerit nec lobortis non, fringilla eu justo. Donec efficitur porta erat, ac efficitur justo cursus eget. Sed quis est ut leo dignissim sagittis. Nam a hendrerit tellus. Nam sed turpis ac mauris rutrum consequat ullamcorper ac arcu. Sed condimentum, metus in sodales fringilla, ex enim ornare mi, a iaculis risus ante at leo. Donec rhoncus, quam sed tincidunt euismod, arcu nisl blandit purus, vel porttitor mi massa pellentesque felis. Proin vulputate, metus sit amet cursus semper, felis orci vulputate ex, in iaculis nisl libero sed nulla. Duis feugiat fringilla justo, auctor bibendum ante accumsan vel. Etiam tellus tortor, bibendum efficitur felis a, ornare commodo quam. Cras malesuada, erat quis porta blandit, enim libero varius arcu, at aliquam nisl eros sed dui. Integer orci sapien, efficitur nec viverra vel, ultricies nec nisl. Aliquam erat volutpat. Nam congue ultrices sapien, in feugiat neque malesuada a. Nullam id urna bibendum massa vehicula consectetur.
Impact
Economic
after a period of penury and hardship, the economy shot up, beginning what became known as the "Trente glorieuses" (30 glorious years)
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See also
- 1943 in France
- 1944 in France
- 1945 in France
- Allies of World War II
- Charles de Gaulle
- Collaboration with the Axis Powers during World War II
- End of World War II in Europe
- Foreign policy of Charles de Gaulle
- France–Germany border
- Free France
- French Colonial Empire
- French Fourth Republic
- French Resistance
- French Liberation Army
- French Third Republic
- German occupation of France
- Italian occupation of France during World War II
- Liberation of Europe
- Liberation of Paris
- Military history of France during World War II
- Philippe Pétain
- Post–World War II economic expansion
- Provisional Government of the French Republic
- Pursuit of Nazi collaborators
- Rene Bousquet
- Timeline of the Battle of France
- Timeline of the liberation of France
- Vichy France
- Vichy French Air Force
- Western_Front_(World_War_II)
- World War II in the Basque Country
- Zone libre
References
- ^ "STO" (in French). Larousse.
- ^ Tony Chafer , "Forgotten Soldiers: Tony Chafer examines the paradoxes and complexities that underlie belated recognition of the contribution of African soldiers to the liberation of France in 1944" History Today 58#11 (November 2008): 35–37.
- ^ Panivong Norindr, "Incorporating Indigenous Soldiers in the Space of the French Nation: Rachid Bouchareb's Indigènes." Yale French Studies 115 (2009): 126-140 online.
- Notes
- Sources
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Further reading
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{{cite journal}}: Empty citation (help) - Diamond, Hanna, and Simon Kitson, eds. Vichy, resistance, liberation: new perspectives on wartime France (Bloomsbury, 2005).
Allies
- Berthon, Simon. Allies at War: The Bitter Rivalry among Churchill, Roosevelt, and de Gaulle. (2001). 356 pp.
- Bourque, Stephen Alan. Beyond the Beach: The Allied War Against France (Naval Institute Press, 2018).
- Dodd, Lindsey, and Andrew Knapp. "'How many Frenchmen did you kill?' British bombing policy towards France (1940-1945)" French History (2008) 22#4 pp 469-492.
- Dougherty, James. The Politics of Wartime Aid: American Economic Assistance to France and French Northwest Africa, 1940-1946 (Greenwood, 1978).
- Hurstfield, Julian G. America and the French Nation 1939-1945 (U North Carolina Press, 1986).
- Kersaudy, Francois. Churchill and De Gaulle (2nd ed 1990) 482pp.
- Pratt, Julius W. "De Gaulle and the United States: How the Rift Began," History Teacher (1968) 1#4 pp. 5–15 in JSTOR
- Rossi, Mario. Roosevelt and the French (Praeger, 1994).
- Rossi, Mario. "United States Military Authorities and Free France, 1942–1944," Journal of Military History (1997) 61#1 pp. 49–64 in JSTOR
Biographical
- Clayton, Anthony. Three Marshals of France: Leadership After Trauma (Brassey's, 1992) on Alphonse Juin, Jean de Lattre de Tassigny and Philippe Leclerc de Hauteclocque.
- Fenby, Jonathan. The General: Charles de Gaulle and the France He Saved. (Simon and Schuster. 2011)
- Funk, Arthur Layton. Charles de Gaulle: The Crucial Years, 1943–1944 (1959) online edition
- Jackson, Julian, A Certain Idea of France: The Life of Charles de Gaulle (2018) 887pp; the latest biography
- Lacouture, Jean, De Gaulle: The Rebel 1890–1944 (1984; English ed. 1991), 640 pp.
- Weinberg, Gerhard L. Visions of Victory: The Hopes of Eight World War II Leaders. (2005). 292 pp. chapter on de Gaulle
Economy
- Broch, Ludivine. Ordinary workers, Vichy and the Holocaust: French railwaymen and the Second World War (Cambridge UP, 2016).
- Broch, Ludivine. “Professionalism in the Final Solution: French Railway Workers and the Jewish Deportations, 1942-1944” Contemporary European History (2014) 23:3.
- Brunet, Luc-André. "The new industrial order: Vichy, steel, and the origins of the Monnet Plan, 1940-1946" (PhD. Diss. The London School of Economics and Political Science (LSE), 2014) online.
- Imlay, Talbot C., Martin Horn, and Talbot Imlay. The Politics of Industrial Collaboration During World War II: Ford France, Vichy and Nazi Germany (Cambridge UP, 2014).
Germans
- Imlay, Talbot. "The German Side of Things: Recent Scholarship on the German Occupation of France." French Historical Studies 39.1 (2016): 183-215.
- U Laub, Thomas J. After the fall: German policy in occupied France, 1940-1944 (Oxford UP, 2010).
Invasions
- Caddick-Adams, Peter. Sand and Steel: The D-Day Invasion and the Liberation of France (Oxford UP, 2019).
- Cross, Robin. Operation Dragoon: The Allied Liberation of the South of France: 1944 (Pegasus Books, 2019).
- Holland, James. Normandy ’44: D-Day and the Epic 77-Day Battle for France. A New History (Grove Atlantic, 2019)
- Keegan, John Six Armies in Normandy: From D-Day to the Liberation of Paris (1994)
- Tucker-Jones, Anthony. Operation Dragoon: The Liberation of Southern France 1944 (Casemate, 2010).
- Wilkins, Thomas Stow. "Analysing coalition warfare from an intra-alliance politics perspective: the Normandy campaign 1944." Journal of Strategic Studies 29#6 (2006): 1121-1150.
- Wilt, Alan F. "The Summer of 1944: A comparison of Overlord and Anvil/Dragoon." Journal of Strategic Studies 4.2 (1981): 187-195.
Regions and localities
- Cipko, Serge. "Sacred Ground: The Liberation of Alsace-Lorraine, 1944-1946." Past Imperfect (1994), Vol. 3, pp 159-18.
- Diamond, Hanna. "The Return of the Republic: Crowd Photography and the Liberation in Toulouse, 1944–1945." French Politics, Culture & Society 37.1 (2019): 90-116.
- Kedward, Harry Roderick. In Search of the Maquis: Rural Resistance in Southern France 1942-1944 (Clarendon Press, 1993).
- Moorehead, Caroline. Village of secrets: defying the Nazis in Vichy France (Random House, 2014), a village in eastern France
- Reid, Donald. "Un village français: Imagining lives in occupied France." French Cultural Studies 30.3 (2019): 220-231.
- Sica, Emanuele. Mussolini's Army in the French Riviera: Italy's Occupation of France (U of Illinois Press, 2015). online review
- Smith, Jean Edward. The Liberation of Paris: How Eisenhower, De Gaulle, and Von Choltitz Saved the City of Light (Simon & Schuster), 2020.
The Resistance
- Funk, Arthur L. "Churchill, Eisenhower, and the French Resistance." Journal of Military History 45.1 (1981): 29+.
Women, family, gender
- Dodd, Lindsey. French children under the Allied bombs, 1940–45: An oral history (Manchester UP, 2016).
- Weitz, Margaret Collins. Sisters in the Resistance: how women fought to free France, 1940-1945 (J. Wiley, 1995).
Historiography, memory and commemoration
- Berkvam, Michael L. Writing the Story of France in World War II: Literature and Memory, 1942-1958 (University Press of the South, 2000).
- Footitt, Hilary. War and Liberation in France: Living with the Liberators (Springer, 2004).
- Herman, Gerald, and Claude Bouygues. "The liberation of France, as reflected in philately." Contemporary French Civilization (1988) 12#1 pp 108-128.
- Kedward, Harry Roderick, and Nancy Wood, eds. The Liberation of France: Image and Event (Berg Publishers, 1995).
- Knapp, Andrew. "The destruction and liberation of Le Havre in modern memory." War in History 14.4 (2007): 476-498.
- Peschanski, Denis. "Legitimacy/Legitimation/Delegitimation: France in the Dark Years, a Textbook Case." Contemporary European History (2004): 409-423 online.
- Wood, Nancy. "Memorial Militancy in France: 'Working-Through' or the Politics of Anachronism?" Patterns of Prejudice. (1995), Vol. 29 Issue 2/3, pp 89-103.
Primary sources
- De Gaulle, Charles. War Memoirs: Call to Honour, 1940–1942 (L'Appel). Tr. by Jonathan Griffin. Collins, London, 1955 (2 volumes). Viking Press, New York, 1955.
- De Gaulle, Charles. War Memoirs: Unity, 1942–1944 (L'Unité). Tr. by Richard Howard (narrative) and Joyce Murchie and Hamish Erskine (documents). Weidenfeld & Nicolson, London, 1959 (2 volumes). Simon & Schuster, New York, 1959 (2 volumes).
- De Gaulle, Charles. War Memoirs: Salvation, 1944–1946 (Le Salut). Tr. by Richard Howard (narrative) and Joyce Murchie and Hamish Erskine (documents). Weidenfeld & Nicolson, London, 1960 (2 volumes). Simon & Schuster, New York, 1960 (2 volumes).
- Cairns, John C. "General de Gaulle and the Salvation of France, 1944-46," Journal of Modern History (1960) 32#3 pp. 251–259 in JSTOR review of War Memoirs
- Giangreco, D. M., Kathryn Moore, and Norman Polmar, eds. Eyewitness D-Day: Firsthand Accounts from the Landing at Normandy to the Liberation of Paris (2005) 260pp.
- de Tassigny, Jean de Lattre. The History of the French 1st Army (Translated by Malcolm Barnes) (G. Allen and Unwin, 1952).
External links
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