Portugal in the Reconquista

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18th century painting of the Battle of Ourique.

Portuguese participation in the Reconquista occurred from when the County of Portugal was founded in 868 and continued for 381 years until the last cities still in Muslim control in the Algarve were captured in 1249. Portugal was created during this prolonged process and largely owes its geographic form to it.

The Portuguese Reconquista involved the participation of north European crusaders passing through Portuguese coasts en route to the Holy Land, such as Englishmen, French, Flemings, Normans and Germans, most notably at the conquest of Lisbon in 1147, but also in 1142, 1154, 1189, 1191 and 1217. Many settled in Portugal at the invitation of king Afonso I or his son and successor Sancho I.[1]

While the initial stages of the Portuguese Reconquista were marked by the participation of the upper aristocracy, as the frontier was steadily pushed further south initiative was yielded to minor nobles, town militiamen and peasant knights willing to go on lengthy campaigns. The final stages of Portuguese military effort in the south were mostly undertaken by the military Orders, most notably the Knights of Santiago and the Templars, but also the Order of Calatrava and Hospitallers to a lesser degree. The threat of Muslim raids also prompted the creation of the Portuguese Navy, the oldest in the world still in operation.

While the Count of Portugal was a major vassal of León, at the time of independence, the economy of Portugal was relatively underdeveloped, and there was no mint in the country.[2] The capture of spoils or extraction of tribute provided momentary income but it was largely unreliable.[2] Defensive needs motivated the settlement and economic development of the territory and this in turn provided the means for further expansion. Religious Orders such as the Cistercians led the way in agricultural development through a system of granges worked by lay brothers who enabled them to maintain agricultural and cattle enterprises of a sophistication and scale previously unheard of in Portugal.[2] The military Orders later adopted similar economies and scale and introduced notably sophisticated methods of production, irrigation and fortification.[3] As Islam receded, Portuguese cities became steadily more prosperous and larger, with signs of an international Portuguese maritime trade appearing by the thirteenth century.[3][4]

The expansion of Portugal was vital to the legitimization of Afonso I as an independent sovereign, with the Papal decree Manifestis Probatum acknowledging Afonsos efforts in the reconquest of territory back to Christendom as "manifestly proven" and his claims to the title of king as worthy of recognition.[5]

Background[edit]

In 711, a Muslim army commanded by Tariq ibn Ziyad, belonging to the Umayyad Caliphate of Damascus, invaded the Iberian peninsula then controlled in its entirety by the Visigothic Kingdom. The Visigoths and their king, Roderic, were defeated at the Battle of Guadalete and from that moment on the peninsula was quickly captured by Muslims forces, which included Arabs and Berbers, in about two years thereafter.

Eleven years later Pelagius revolted against the Muslim occupation in Asturias and in 722 defeated a Muslim force at the Battle of Covadonga, expelled the Muslim governor Munuza from the region and founded the Kingdom of Asturias.

This kingdom gradually expanded across the mountainous north of the Iberian peninsula, capturing Leon and Galicia among other territories and it would be under the aegis of its kings that 146 years later Christian rule would reach the banks of the Douro River, where the city and region of Portucale, now Porto, was located.

Conquests under the Kings of Asturias 868-988[edit]

Founding of the County of Portugal 868[edit]

The Iberian peninsula in 875.
Main article: County of Portugal

During the reign of Alfonso III of Asturias, 157 years after the invasion of the Iberian peninsula by Muslims, the nobleman Vímara Peres seized Porto and its territory, then called Portucale, or Portugal, at a time when the head of royal guard of the Emir of Cordoba had revolted. Vímara Peres was granted broad privileges and the territory began to be settled by families belonging to the high nobility, few in number and related to royalty.

The capture and occupation of territory continued and in 870 Braga was settled and its territory was organized under the personal guidance of Vímara Peres. In the same year, São Miguel do Paraíso, in Guimarães, was taken over by Lucídio Vimaranes, son of Vimara Peres.[6] Still in 870, São Tomé de Negrelos was occupied by Flomarico and his wife Gundila, as well as by Scelemondo with his wife Astragundia.[7]

Count Odoário seized Chaves in 872, and from this city the process of capture and resettlement of the mountainous Trás-os-Montes began, first in and around the fertile lands of the Chaves valley.[6]

Founding of the County of Coimbra 878[edit]

The Iberian peninsula in 900.
Main article: County of Coimbra

The city of Coimbra was seized by Count Hermenegildo Guterres in 878.[8] Other locations south of the Douro were then taken and resettled by order of Alfonso III of Asturias, such as Viseu, Lamego, and Anégia, today Eja, where the Chapel of Nossa Senhora da Cividade now stands specifically.

Lardosa, in the current parish of Rans, municipality of Penafiel was seized in 882 by Muzara and Zamora, two Mozarabs most likely coming from the south.[6]

The Christian border progressed nearly 200 km south along the coast, passing from the Douro River to the Mondego valley but inland the border ran northeast along the Estrela Mountainrange on the northern slope but probably did not exceed the Rio Coa to the east.[9]

Loss of Coimbra 988-1034[edit]

The Iberian peninsula in 1002

The territory between the Douro and the Mondego remained in Christian hands for more than a century until the late 10th century campaigns of the notable vizier of Cordoba Almançor, in 986, 987, 995 e 997, which brought the frontier back to the Douro river valley.

Braga was sacked in 985 and two years later Almançor captured Coimbra, Seia, Viseu and Lamego.

Reconquest of Coimbra 1034-1064[edit]

Main article: Siege of Coimbra (1064)

Civil-war broke out in the Caliphate of Cordoba in 1009 and this would ultimately result in the fragmentation of the Andaluz into several independent and rival emirates or taifa states, a circumstance which benefitted the Christian kingdoms to the north.

In 1028 Alfonso V of León sieged Viseu, however he was killed in the action by a crossbow bolt shot from the walls.[10]

On October 14, 1034, Gonçalo Trastamires da Maia reconquered Montemor-o-Velho, thus bringing the border to the Mondego river.[11]

Beiras campaign, 1055-1064[edit]

The Iberian peninsula in 1065.

In 1054, Emperor Ferdinand I of León prepared a military campaign in Tierra de Campos with the intention of recapturing the territories which had been lost to the Muslims in the west of the peninsula. In the summer of the following year he crossed the river Douro from Zamora and entered Portugal. Between 1055 and 1063 the emperor captured the castle of Seia on the slopes of the Estrela Mountainrange; the castle of Tarouca; Lamego on November 29, 1057; the castle of Marialva; Viseu was recaptured on July 25, 1057, the attack on this city having been encouraged by the spirit of retaliation after the death of Afonso V during the unsuccessful siege of 1028. São Martinho de Mouro, Travanca, and Penalva do Castelo were also recaptured.[12]

In 1063, the Emperor carried out a large raid against the taifas of Seville and Badajoz, from which he began receiving tribute and in this same year the mozarabic lord of Tentúgal, Dom Sisnando Davides proposed to Emperor Ferdinand the capture of nearby Coimbra. Dom Sesnando had served in the Court of Cordoba and married the daughter of the last count of Portugal.

The Emperor accepted the proposal and an expedition was prepared in December. After a pilgrimage to Santiago de Compostela that included the entire royal family, Coimbra was beset on January 20, 1064, and fell to Christian hands on July 9, 1064, after a six-month siege.[11]

Dom Sesnando was attributed the city and the region as Count of Coimbra, a position which he would hold until his death in 1091.[11]

Founding of the County of Santarém, 1093[edit]

Walls of the citadel of Santarém.

When Emperor Ferdinand died in 1065, his realm was divided among this three sons and Garcia received the Kingdom of Galicia with the counties of Portugal and Coimbra. Six years later, Count Nuno Mendes of Portugal revolted but was defeated and killed at the Battle of Pedroso. The title and office of Count of Portugal was abolished and Portugal lost its autonomy.

In 1090, Raymond of Burgundy married the daughter and heir of Emperor Alfonso VI and later received the title of count of Galicia with authority over all the territory in the west of the peninsula from Galicia to Coimbra. The mozarabic count of Coimbra Martim Moniz de Ribadouro was sacked from his position and relegated to the minor governorship of Arouca.[13]

At a time when the Almoravid emir Yusuf Ibn Tashfin sought to annex all the small taifa stats in the peninsula, the emir of Badajoz offered to become a tributary vassal and to hand over the cities of Lisbon, Sintra and Santarém to the Emperor of Leon in exchange for military protection.[14]

The Emperor was in Coimbra on April 22, 1093, and on the occasion confirmed the charter of privileges of this city. Lisbon, Sintra and Santarém were then occupied between April 30 and May 8, 1093. Soeiro Mendes was tasked with defending the territory as Count of Santarém.[14] Mendes was subordinate to Raymond, tasked with defending all the territory from Galicia to the Tagus.[14]

Almoravid campaigns, 1094-1117[edit]

The delivery of territory to Christians caused outrage among Muslims in Andaluz and the Maghreb and the residents of Santarém, Lisbon and Sintra requested the Almoravid emir Yusuf Ibn Tashfin to intervene on their behalf, shortly after Soeiro Mendes had taken possession of the territory.[14]

A few months later in 1093 still, the Almoravid general Seyr landed in Iberia with a numerous army and orders to annex Badajoz, Lisbon, Sintra and Santarém.[14]

Badajoz was attacked in the Spring of 1094. The emir of the city along with his children were assassinated and the city taken before Raymon could intervene.[14] Count Raymond gathered a force at Coimbra along with the Bishops of Santiago and Lugo and many Galician knights however upon marching out he was routed in battle and forced to return to Christian territory.[15]

Loss of Lisbon and Sintra, 1094[edit]

Lisbon and Sintra surrendered to the Almoravids in 1094. Besieged by Almoravid forces, Soeiro Mendes, resisted vigorously in Santarém until Seyr withdrew to north Africa.

Flag of the count of Portugal

Count Raymonds lack of capacity against the Muslims dictated his loss of prestige at the Leonese Court. In 1096 his cousin Henry was made new Count of Portugal and attributed the territory between the river Minho and Mondego.

In 1102, count Henry defeated a Muslim force at the Battle of Arouca, together with Egas Moniz.

Loss of Santarém, 1111[edit]

In 1110 Count Henry dispatched the adail Soeiro Fromarigues to Santarém with a number of troops to reinforce the city against the almoravids, who threatened the southern frontier. These forces were however attacked while encamped at Vatalandi, an unknown location close to the Tagus. Soeiro Fromarigues and the knight Miro Crescones were killed in action.

The following year, Santarém was again besieged by an army led by Seyr. Lacking sufficient forces to resist effectively or sure relief, the city fell to the Almoravids and the county of Santarém was abolished.

Count Henry died in 1112 and his wife Teresa took over as regent for their young son Afonso Henriques.

Almoravid campaigns, 1116-1117[edit]

The regent-countess Teresa.
Main article: Siege of Coimbra (1117)

New Almoravid attacks had been expected ever since the death of Count Henry, however only in 1116 did an Almoravid army commanded by Abd al-Malik advance against Coimbra and its territory.[16] The Almoravids massacred the garrison of the castle of Miranda da Beira and captured the garrison of Santa Eulália, including its alcaide Diogo Galinha.[16] The inhabitants of Soure abandoned their castle and sought refuge in Coimbra.[16] Its outskirts were attacked and destroyed, after which the Almoravids withdrew south.[16]

This same year the Almoravids captured Mallorca, the last independent taifa state in Iberia, thus bringing the entirety of the Andaluz under their authority.

Coimbra was attacked in 1117 by the Almoravid emir Ali Ibn Yusuf at the head of a large army which included both Africans as well as Andalucians, "as many as the grains of sand of the sea" according to one source.[16] On this occasion the Almoravids landed at Montemor-o-Velho and proceeded to sack the outer suburbs from there, capturing and killing people. The Portuguese once more sought refuge behind the walls of Coimbra, where the regent-Countess Teresa could be found at this time.

The city was subjected to almost daily assaults beginning in late June, but the Almoravids were unable to capture Coimbra. After 20 days Ali Ibn Yusuf withdrew to Seville in early July. Keeping Coimbra would have proven difficult for the Almoravids.

Thousands perished in the attack.[17] The siege of Coimbra marked the height of Almoravid power in Iberia.[18] After the successful defense of Coimbra, Teresa henceforth signed as "queen".

Templar cross.

In 1128, the Templars settled in Portugal after Teresa donated the Castle of Soure to the Order.[19] The castle had been erected close to Coimbra in the second half of the 11th century by Sisnando Davides, on the road that connected Coimbra to Lisbon.[20]

First actions of Afonso Henriques 1135-1142[edit]

After the Battle of São Mamede, Afonso Henriques took over the government of the county of Portugal. In 1135 founded the Castle of Leiria, roughly halfway between Coimbra and Santarém, defending an important road between the two cities. Its garrison was tasked not only with defending the access to Coimbra from the south, but also to attack Santarém and its surrounding territory, raiding fields, capturing persons, ambushing caravans until the city was weak enough to be taken by assault. The founding of Leiria was the first hostile act carried out by Afonso towards the Muslims. Torres Novas was also captured.

Dom Paio Guterres was left as alcaide of Leiria and he launched so many successful attacks against the territory of Santarém that in 1137 the castle was assaulted and razed, with over 250 men among knights and footmen being killed.[21] Torres Novas was lost. A Portuguese force was also wiped out close to the banks of the River Nabão, modern-day Tomar River.[21] Leiria was later recaptured.

The Battle of Ourique 1139[edit]

Commeorative azulejo tile panel dedicated to the Battle of Ourique.
Main article: Battle of Ourique

After the Treaty of Tuy was signed and peace sealed with Emperor Alfonso VII of León, king Afonso Henriques led a major raid in Muslim territory.[22] The moment was well selected as the Leonese had laid sieged Oreja and the Almoravids would have been preoccupied with aiding the beleaguered castle. Little resistance could thus be mounted by the western garrisons against the Portuguese king and his troops, who faced little resistance as they advanced.[22]

The Portuguese numbered about 800 to 1000 knights and 1600 to 2000 footmen, among spearmen and crossbowmen. On their way back they were intercepted by a Muslim force commanded by "Esmar", likely the governor of Cordoba Muhammad Az-Zubayr Ibn Umar at Ourique.[22] The Muslim commander had gathered whatever forces could be collected from Beja, Badajoz, Évora, Seville and Elvas, thereby forming a relatively numerous host.[22]

When they attempted to attack the Portuguese camp set upon a hill however, the Portuguese sallied out to meet them on the open field and routed them with a heavy cavalry charge.[22]

On the day of the Battle of Ourique, Afonso was acclaimed as king by his men in the old Germanic fashion, by being raised atop his shiled. Henceforth he signed always as "rex".[22]

First siege of Lisbon, 1142[edit]

Leiria castle.

After the Battle of Ourique, a Muslim force under the command of Ismar attacked Leiria in 1140 and once again razed it.[23] The Muslims then marched on Portugal and raided the territory as far as Trancoso.[24]

Once peace was signed with Emperor Alfonso VII of Leon after the Battle of Valdevez, Afonso Henriques marched south with his men, crossed the Douro river close to Lamego, and routed the Muslims at Trancoso, which he expelt from the territory.[25] On his way back from this campaign he founded the Monastery of Tarouca.[25]

In 1142, a fleet of English and Norman crusaders who had departed from Southampton and Hasting on their way to the Holy Land called at Gaia, blown off-course due to bad weather.[26] King Afonso convinced them to support his projected campaign against Lisbon, the ownership of which would yield him the control of all the territory between Leiria and the Tagus in one fell swoop.

The crusader fleet sailed up the Tagus as the Portuguese attacked Lisbon on the land side, however the attack had to be called off due to disagreements between the crusaders and Afonso.

Definitive conquest of Lisbon and Santarém 1142-1147[edit]

The Iberian peninsula in 1144.

Afonso probably refounded the Castle of Leiria on his return ot Coimbra from his failed attack on Lisbon. This was the first step towards the recapture of the Extremadura as far as the Tagus.

Peace was sealed with Leon in 1143 by the Treaty of Zamora, thereby securing the northern Portuguese border against Leonese attack.

In 1144 the Almoravids left Santarém and pillaged the Templar castle of Soure under the command of Esmar, who took the defenders captive.[27]

The Muridun Revolt 1144-1445[edit]

Almoravid power in Iberia began to crumble in 1144 when the muridun staged a major revolt in the Gharb, led by the Sufi mystic Ibn Qasi.[28] Ibn Qasi was a radical anti-Almoravid millenarian whose writings displayed strong Ismaili esoterist tendencies and had given up leisurely life.[29] A complex combination of Almohad theology, claims to messianism, a spiritualist idea of Islam, the legal pedantry of Islamic Maliki jurists and the disturbing amount of wealth of the ulama probably lay at the root of his revolt.[29] He captured Mértola with the help of Ibn al-Qabila and 70 murids in 1144.[29] With the aid of governor of Évora Ibn Wazir and Muhammad Ibn al-Mundhir Ibn Qasi captured Silves, Évora, Beja, Huelva, Niebla and organized two unsuccessful attacks against Seville and Cordoba.[29] The revolt of the muridun greatly weakened the ability of the Almoravids to respond to external threats, indirectly aiding the Christians.[30]

The muridun split in 1145 and Ibn Qasi was deposed by Ibn Wazir.[28] He then joined the Almohads, who placed him in charge of Silves.[29] That same year, Afonso Henriques led a raid into Muslim territory that reached as far as Beja, from which he and his party returned loaded with spoils.[27] In 1145 still, the Templars were granted the castle of Longroiva by Afonso Henriques' sister Sancha and her husband Fernão Mendes de Bragança II.[31]

Conquest of Santarém, 1147[edit]

The scaling of Santarém, by Roque Gameiro.
Main article: Conquest of Santarém

In order to spy the defenses of Santarém, Afonso dispatched Mem Ramires to the city under the pretext of speaking with the templars taken captive at Soure. The moment to attack Santarém had been well picked as the Almoravid authority was disintegrating in Iberia and in Africa due to revolts, especially because of the Almohads.

On March 10 the king departed from Coimbra with 250 men, among templar knights and footmen and at the end of five days march done by night and by secondary paths, they camped at Pernes. By dawn of the following day, the walls of Santarém were scaled by a small group of men commanded by Mem Ramires, who then opened the gates to the king and his men, waiting outside. Thus the city fell under Portuguese control.

The definitive conquest of Lisbon, 1147[edit]

The siege of Lisbon, illustrated by Roque Gameiro.
Main article: Siege of Lisbon

After the fall of Edessa, Pope Eugenius III called for a new crusade and under these circumstances a new crusader fleet totalling 164 ships anchored at Porto on June 16, 1147, on their way to the Middle East. The Bishop of Porto Pedro Pitões II convinced them to participate in the projected siege to Lisbon.

The host of Afonso Henriques departed from Coimbra on 6 of June and when the crusader fleet sailed up the Tagus on June 28, the Portuguese had already pitched camp in Mount São Gens, to the north. The king was accompanied by some of the most distinguished figures among the nobility at the time, such as Fernão Mendes II of Braganza and the royal ensign Fernão Peres Cativo, along with other minor nobles such as Martim Moniz, who would perish in the siege. The Portuguese probably numbered about 3000 men, while the crusaders totalled 10,000 to 13,000 persons.[32]

On June 29 the king met with the main crusader leaders in order to decide how the spoils would be divided, and it was agreed that the crusaders would keep whatever plunder they carry, the prisoners and their ransom, as well as future trading rights, while the king would keep the city and its houses, so he could reward them as a prize to the participants of the siege who expressed the desire to settle in Lisbon.

The surrender of Lisbon, 18th century painting by Joaquim Rodrigues Braga.

The Muslims refused an offer to surrender peacefully. The English and Normans pitched their camp to the west of the city while the Germans and Flemish chose the place where the Monastery of São Vicente de Fora now stands. A harsh siege followed in which the outer suburbs were violently taken and traction trebuchtes, underground mines and a large movable siege tower were used. At the end of three months and 20 days the Muslim defenders were severely afflicted by hunger and plague due to a lack of room to bury the dead and asked to surrender. The king solemnly entered the city on October 25.[32]

First progress south of the Tagus, 1147-1189[edit]

Almada on the southern bank of the Tagus was taken during the siege of Lisbon, while Palmela was abandoned by its garrison once Lisbon fell.

Óbidos was scaled during the night and forcibly taken by a group of men led by Gonçalo Mendes da Maia on 11 January 1148.[33]

In 1151, Ibn Qasi revolted against the Almohads in Silves and sought the protection of the Portuguese king Afonso.[34] When this pact became public he was murdered and decapitated by a group of dissenters.[34]

The Castle of Alcácer do Sal.

Afonso Henriques tried to personally take Alcácer do Sal by surprise in 1151 at the head of a party of men, like he had done at Santarém, however the Portuguese were detected and the king wounded, hence he returned to Lisbon. After three years at peace, Alcácer do Sal was attacked by Afonso Henriques, however the Muslim stronghold resisted. A third attack was made against Alcácer in 1157 with the support of a crusader fleet commanded by the count of Flanders Thierry of Alsace however the Christians were rebuffed once more.[35] In April 1158 Alcácer was taken at the end of a sixty days siege.[36][35]

Beja was taken by militiamen from Santarém in December 1159 but it was abandoned on April of the following year.

A pitched battle took place in Alentejo between the Almohads and the Portuguese, who were routed. Beja was attacked and plundered once more by the Portuguese in late November 1162.

In 1165 Sesimbra was taken by force and Palmela, which had since been reoccupied by the Muslims, surrendered to Afonso Henriques.[37] In November 30 of this same year, king Afonso donated the castle of Monsanto to the Templars. Still in 1165, Geraldo the Fearless took Trujillo and Évora, both in the middle of the night and then offered the latter city to Afonso Henriques, apparently in exchange for a large sum of money, and the king then made him its alcaide. The following year Geraldo took Cáceres, Montánchez, Alconchel, Serpa and Juromenha, the last of which became Geraldos base for attacks against the major city of Badajoz.[38][39] In 1166 still the warrior monks of a recently created Catholic military Order settled at Évora, however by order of the Pope they were then integrated in the Order of Calatrava.

Cross of Calatrava.

In 1167, Gonçalo Mendes da Maia captured the Castle of Noudar.[40]

The siege of Badajoz, 1169[edit]

Main article: Siege of Badajoz (1169)

Badajoz was one of the most important Almohad fortresses in the Andaluz and its authorities paid tribute to the Emperor of León.[41] Due to the constant civil strife, its surrounding territory was by then depopulated.[42]

War broke out between Portugal and León in 1167 and two years later Badajoz was attacked by Gerald the Fearless and his men, who scaled the walls and took over the city. Its garrison however withdrew to its high citadel, which the men of Geraldes proved unable to take hence they requested aid from Afonso Henriques.

The host of the Portuguese king arrived at Badajoz and settled within the city, however the defenders still in the high citadel were unexpectedly relieved not by the Almohad Caliph but by the Emperor of León and his army. When Afonso attempted to sally out with his men on horseback he broke his leg against the city gates and was then captured by the Leonese in Caia.[41]

The Emperor of León treated the Portuguese king fairly and courteously, however Afonso Henriques still had to pay a king's ransom and relinquish captured territory in Galicia in exchange for liberty, which was granted after two months captivity.[41] Though he spent some time at the São Pedro do Sul springs recovering, he was never able to ride a horse again.[41]

Geraldo the Fearless was also captured, and was forced to relinquish the castles of Trujillo, Montanchez, Santa Cruz and Monfrague in exchange for his freedom.[43]

Almohad attacks 1170-1173[edit]

See also: Siege of Santarém (1184)
Geraldo the Fearless represented in the cathedral of Évora.

The debacle of Badajoz in 1169 did not demoralize the Portuguese. Just a few months after the siege, Geraldo the Fearless resumed the raids against the region of Badajoz and after luring its garrison out via a feigned attack and retreat he ambushed it and routed it completely.[43] On 15 May 1170 he captured a large Almohad caravan of supplies dispatched to relieve the famine in Badajoz. As king Afonso was now physically unable to ride and therefore lead his host on campaign, prince Sancho was knighted at the Church of Santa Cruz in Coimbra on August 15, 1170.[44] A few weeks later in September the prince led a new siege against the now severely weakened Badajoz but the city was once again relieved on time, not just by Leonese forces but by an Almohad army commanded by Abu Hafs Umar ibn Yahya al-Hintati as well.[43] The Portuguese therefore withdrew in good order in October or early November.[43]

Alarmed by the attacks on Badajoz, the Almohads mounted an incursion into Portugal in 1170 and attacked Beja. A short combat was struck by the city walls in April and in July the Muslims were forced to lift the siege. The preceptor of the Templars in Portugal Dom Gualdim Pais promoted the renovation of Almourol Castle in 1171.[45] On invitation of King Afonso, the Order of Santiago established itself in Portugal in 1172 after they were granted the castle of Monsanto (formerly in the ownership of the Templars) and the castle of Abrantes the following year.[46]

Truce 1173-1178[edit]

Ambassadors were dispatched to Seville and a truce was then agreed-upon between Afonso Henriques and the Almohads a month later in October 1173.[47]

Coat of arms of Lisbon.

The relics of Saint Vicent of Zaragoza were brought to Lisbon during this truce in 1173.[48] A number of residents of Lisbon sailed to Sagres and brought back the remains of the saint buried in a temple on the "Sacred Promontory".[47] Upon their return, the place where the relics ought to be deposited caused an upheaval between the mozarabic residents of the parish of Santa Justa, the dean of the Lisbon Cathedral and the Augustinian monks of the Monastery of Saint Vicent.[47] The chief-frontiersman of Estremadura Gonçalo Viegas de Lanhoso marched down from the castle with a corps of soldiers and only by his armed intervention could order be restored and an agreement reached between all parts, whereby the relics where deposited in the cathedral, though a piece was retained by the monks.[47] A ship bearing the relics of Saint Vicent accompanied by crows henceforth became the charge of the coat of arms of Lisbon.

After this truce was signed, Geraldo the Fearless left the service of king Afonso with 350 men and sought employment under the Almohads, who stationed him in Sous in north-Africa.[49] After communications between Geraldes and king Afonso surfaced, he was transferred further inland to Draa and executed by the governor.[49]

In 1176, the Portuguese king donated Coruche to the Order of Calatrava, as its castle guarded the road that linked Santarém to Évora.[50]

The great 'Triana Raid', 1178[edit]

Plan of the walls of Seville (top-left). Torre del Oro, former Almohad watchtower of Seville (top right). Almohad walls of Seville (below).

Once the truce with the Muslims was over, prince Sancho led a great raid deep into Muslim territory.[46][51] Troops gathered in Coimbra in the month of May and they included both infantry and cavalry drawn from the Order of Calatrava, the urban militias of the city as well as various other towns, such as Santarém, Lisbon and Évora, and the hosts of some of the main nobles in Portugal.[52] It numbered about 2300 cavalry and 5000 footmen and was one of the largest forces mobilized by the Portuguese Crown so far.[52]

They plundered the Almohad-controlled regions of Beja.[52] Making a wide circuit through the modern Spanish Extremadura, the Portuguese crossed Sierra Morena and reached Seville in November, however their host was insufficient to assault the great city.[53] They camped a few kilometers west of Seville and routed an Almohad army dispatched to intercept them in a large pitched-battle outside the city.[53][52]

While the city lay on the left bank of the river, the Triana suburbs lay on the right bank and were connected by a bridge of barques close to the Torre del Oro.[53] A tower overlooked the bridge.[53] The suburbs were plundered and rich spoils captured.[53][52]

While en route back to Coimbra, Niebla and Gibraleón were raided.[52] A detachment of 1400 light horsemen and the garrison of Alcácer do Sal routed an Almohad contingent from Beja and Serpa commanded by the qaids Ibn Wazir and Ibn Timsalit, both of whom were killed in action.[52] The great Triana Raid was one of the most daring military operations conducted in the history of Portugal and allowed the prince Sancho to affirm himself as a worthy commander and heir to the throne.[52]

Almohad attacks 1179-1184[edit]

Almohad standard captured in 1212.

The reprisals for Sanchos daring "Triana Raid" as it came to be known were quick to follow. In 1179 the Almohads invaded Portugal for the second time. They attacked Abrantes, whose castle they were unable to take.[54] A Muslim fleet also raided the suburbs of Lisbon.[51]

A major landmark in Portuguese history was achieved in 1179 as by the Papal decree Manifestis Probatum, Portugal was acknowledged as an independent kingdom by the Vatican, largely as a result of the efforts by king Afonso against the Muslims.

In 1180 the Almohads attacked Portugal a third time. A fleet of galleys departed from Seville to raid the Portuguese coast on this year and under these circumstances the Battle of Cape Espichel was fought on 15 July, in which the first admiral of Portugal Dom Fuas Roupinho defeated the Muslim fleet.[55] He then left for Ceuta and captured the ships on its harbour.[56] In late 1180 an Almohad army departed from Seville under the leadership of Mohammed Ibn Yusuf Ibn Wammudin, who besieged Évora, while a detachment destroyed Coruche e carried its residents and defenders to captivity.[56][54] While the siege of Évora was ongoing, a Portuguese fleet of 21 galleys commanded by Fuas Roupinho was defeated by a fleet of 51 Muslim galleys.[56] At Évora however, the Almohads were forced to lift the siege and return to Seville.

The Almohad Caliph Abu Yaqub Yusuf crossed the Strait of Gibraltar at the head of a large army in 1184 and moving through Seville and Badajoz invaded Portugal for the fourth time. He besieged Santarém, then defended by Afonso Henriques and his heir prince Sancho. Once the news of the siege of Badajoz spread, king Ferdinand II of Leon gathered an army and marched out to aid the Portuguese.

The Caliph ordered a detachment to attack Lisbon but the orders were poorly transmitted and once part of the army withdrew, the rest of his forces began leaving as well. As he attempted to restore order he was struck and died on the road shortly afterwards, on July 29, 1184.

Truce, 1184-1189[edit]

Flag during the reign of Sancho I.

After the death of the Caliph Abu Yaqub Yusuf, prince Sancho negotiated a truce with his son and successor, Abu Yusuf Yaqub.

On December 6, 1185, king Afonso Henriques passed away and his heir succeeded him on the throne as Sancho I.[57] His first four years were peaceful.[58] Sancho was faced with the problem of large stretches of half-abandoned territory, ruined settlements and untilled fields due to war.[58] He began by taking the opportunity to focus on organizing the administration of his kingdom, and granted charters regulating the laws and privileges of several Portuguese towns such as Gouveia and Covilhã in 1186, Viseu and Brangança in 1187 and Folgosinho and Valhelhas in 1188.[59] A new castle was built on the Galician border at Contrasta, nowadays known as Valença.[58] He donated Alcanede Castle to the Order of Calatrava in 1187.[60]

Siege of Silves, 1189[edit]

Walls and detached towers of the citadel of Silves.
Main article: Siege of Silves (1189)

When Jerusalem was conquered by Saladin in October 1187, Pope Gregory VIII called for the third crusade. Sancho realized that a new wave of crusader fleets would soon pass by the Portuguese coasts on their way to Palestine. In 1189 ships from Denmark and Frisia called at Lisbon, and in June they attacked the castle of Alvor in Algarve.[61][62] They were accompanied by Portuguese galleys as far as Gibraltar.

A new crusader fleet called at Lisbon in 3 or 4 July and on this occasion king Sancho obtained their support for a planned attack against the major city of Silves, the most important one in the Gharb al-Andalus.[63][64]

On July 20, 1189, the Portuguese host set up camp close to Silves just as the crusader fleet arrived by sea and sailed up the River Arade. The city was first attacked the following day for about a month and a half it was subjected to a violent siege, in which siege engines were used. The inhabitants surrendered, together with the surrounding castles at Lagos, Alvor, Portimão, Monchique, Santo Estêvão, Carvoeiro, São Bartolomeu de Messines, Paderne e Sagres.[65][66]

The great Almohad campaigns, 1190-1191[edit]

Battle of the Reconquista represented in the Cantigas de Santa Maria.
Main article: Almohad campaign against Portugal (1190–1191)

The Almohad Caliph Abu Yusuf Yacub al-Mansur had been planning a great campaign against Portugal at least since 1188, even before the conquest of Silves.[67][68] The taking of this prestigious city by the Portuguese however caused outrage in the Maghreb and the Caliph ordered holy war to be preached. In April 1190 he crossed the Strait of Gibraltar at the head of a large army in besiged Silves in June. The Caliph however left his cousin Sayyid Yahya Ibn Umar at the command of operations and then left for Cordoba, where he met with ambassadors of King Alfonso VIII of Castile, who accepted a truce, leaving the Almohads free to focus on the planned attack against Portugal.[67][69]

1190 campaign[edit]

See also: Siege of Tomar

From Cordoba, the Almohad Caliph proceeded to invade Portuguese territory, entering through the Alentejo.[69]

While Silves was under siege, Torres Novas was attacked and taken.[67] Its defenders were granted freedom. The Caliph then personally besieged Tomar, a powerful Templar castle defended by Gualdim Pais, preceptor of the Templars in Portugal. The Caliphs objective however was the important city and stronghold of Santarém.[69]

Citadel of Tomar.

By chance, at this time a number of crusader ships from northern Europe on their way to the Holy Land called at Silves and Lisbon due to bad weather. King Sancho of Portugal was at Lisbon at the time and he managed to obtain the support of 500 crusaders to relieve Santarém, hence he turned down the Caliphs peace proposals, which involved relinquishing Silves.[70] The king then departed to Santarém and settled in the city with his troops.[71] Santarém was besiged but, having met heavier resistance than anticipated, the Caliph ordered the sieges on Santarém and Tomar to be lifted, and withdrew south.[69] Ill by that point, he lifted the siege of Silves also and left for Seville to spend the winter with his army.

Serious riots between the crusaders and the Jewish and Muslim population of Lisbon then took place, which resulted in the imprisonment of about 700 crusaders. On July 24, the crusader fleet left Lisbon.[69]

1191 campaign[edit]

The Iberian Peninsula in 1195.

A new, larger and better prepared campaign against Portugal was launched by the Almohad Caliph in April 1191.[67] Alcácer do Sal was sieged and captured after its defenders surrendered in exchange for their lives. A Muslim garrison was then installed in the city, which was left under the command of Mohammed Ibn Sidray Ibn Wazir. Certain taxes from Ceuta and Seville were set aside to cover the upkeep of this castle.[72]

After Alcácer do Sal, Palmela, Coina and Almada were then taken. The Castle of Leiria was razed and the district of Coimbra was invaded.

In the Algarve, the castle of Alvor was taken by the Almohads.[73] A new siege was set upon Silves and this time the Caliph possessed four times more siege weapons than the defenders.[74] The walled city was breached and the defenders withdrew to the high citadel.[75] Following the authorization of the king, the Portuguese surrendered on July 25, being allowed to leave with their lives only.

A truce was signed between the Almohads and Portugal and the Caliph withdrew to Morocco. All Portuguese conquest south of the Tagus were thus lost, with the exception of the city of Évora, which resisted as an isolated enclave in Christian hands, surrounded by Muslim territory.[75][76]

Consolidation 1191-1217[edit]

Hospitaller cross.

In order to secure the territory still in Portuguese control against future Muslim incursions, king Sancho followed a policy of consolidation and fortification of the frontier now set at the Tagus once more, largely supported by the military Orders, mainly the Templars, but also the knights of Santiago, Calatrava and the Hospitallers, which not only defended the territory but developed agriculture as well.[77] The string of castles and fortifications along the northern bank of the Tagus became known as the "Tagus Line" (Linha do Tejo in Portuguese).

The "Tagus Line" included the Templar castles of Almourol, Castelo Branco, Pombal, Tomar, Zêzere, Idanha-a-Nova, the Santiago castles of Monsanto, Abrantes, Santarém, the Hospitaller castle of Belver, the castle of Torres Novas, the Castle of Alverca, the Castle of Povos, and Lisbon.

The Templars were given lands in Santarém and Idanha.[77] The knights of Santiago were given the castle of Santarém.[77] In 1193, the castle and territory of Mafra was granted to the Order of Calatrava.[60] In 1194 the king donated the lands of Guidintesta to the Hospitallers, who had been in Portugal for a few decades already, and in exchange the Order erected on it the Castle of Belver, its first castle in Portugal.

The Battle of Alarcos, 1195[edit]

Main article: Battle of Alarcos

At this time, king Alfonso VIII of Castile invaded the Andalus and advanced far as Algeciras. To face the Castilian threat, the Almohad caliph ordered the preaching of holy war and once again crossed the Strait of Gibraltar at the head of a large army. Afonso VIII appealed to neighboring kings for a great Iberian coalition, but the monarchs of León, Navarre and Aragon abstained. Only king Sancho sent a body of troops to aid Castile, led by the former alcaide of Silves Rodrigo Sanches and master of Calatrava in Portugal Gonçalo Viegas de Lanhoso.

Berber-style shield known as adarga.

The Luso-Castilian army was severely routed at the Battle of Alarcos and king Alfonso VIII was nearly captured, while Gonçalo Viegas perished in battle. The king of Castile then signed a truce with the Almohads and the Muslims withdrew to Seville carrying valuable spoils.

In Portugal, the city of Guarda was founded in 1199, in a location that was both difficult to reach and allowed as many as twenty leagues of the surrounding territory to be watched.[78] That same year, king Sancho donated to the Templars the lands of Açafa where the city of Castelo Branco would be established. In 1200 the Order of Calatrava established Benavente.[79] Hunger swept across all of western Europe in 1202, Portugal included and all military efforts were momentarily halted in order to focus on agriculture and relief efforts.[80] Idanha-a-Nova was founded in 1205 or 1206 and delivered to the Templars.[81] The king granted Avis to the Order of Calatrava in 1211 in exchange for the Order erecting a castle on this location, which would be done before 1214.[60] Avis became the headquarters of Calatrava in Portugal and later the headquarters of the Order of Avis.

The Battle of Navas de Tolosa 1212[edit]

The Battle of Navas de Tolosa
Main article: Battle of Navas de Tolosa

On March 26, 1211, king Sancho I passed king Afonso II succeeded him on the throne. That same year, civil-war broke out in Portugal between the king and his sisters Dona Mafalda, Dona Teresa and Dona Sancha. The king of León got involved in this conflict, taking the side of the infantas. Meanwhile, King Alfonso VIII of Castile launched a new war against the Almohads, after the truce signed with them had expired and Caliph Muhammad Nasser once again gathered a large army and crossed into Iberia.[82] This time, however, the king of Castile was supported by the hosts of the kings of Navarre and Aragon, as well as the various religious orders and volunteers throughout Europe.

Afonso II was unable to personally assist the allied kings, but despite being involved in war with his sisters and León, the Portuguese king still dispatched a body of troops to fight the Almohads.[83] The Portuguese host was composed mainly of town militias but also included Templar squadrons as well as other volunteers who joined the expedition, led by the preceptor of the Templars in Portugal, Gomes Ramires.[84]

The Portuguese distinguished themselves in the battle of Navas de Tolosa, with the Castilian Rodrigo de Toledo commenting that "a certain number of warriors from the parts of Portugal, a multitude of footmen of marvelous agility, easily withstood the rigors of the campaign and attacked with audacity", while Lucas of Tuy also wrote that "they rushed into combat as if for a feast."[85][86]

The definitive conquest of Alentejo 1217-1238[edit]

The Iberian peninsula in 1240.
See also: Siege of Alcácer do Sal

Alcácer do Sal was the main Muslim naval base on the western coast of the peninsula and the main threat to Lisbon ever since the Almohad reconquest in 1191.[87] The initiative to conquer this city came from the Bishop of Lisbon D. Soeiro Viegas, who called for a crusade throughout the kingdom, invested his own financial resources in it and obtained the collaboration of both the bishop of Évora, the abbot of Alcobaça, the military Orders and Flemish, Saxon, and Frisian crusaders whose fleet had arrived at Lisbon, on the way to Palestine.[87] The bulk of the army was made up of infantry from the town militias, but would also included around 300 knights, as well as Templar squadrons, led by Master Dom Pedro Alvites, knights of Santiago led by Martim Pais Barregão and hospitallers led by Prior Dom Gonçalves de Cerveira.[87]

The Christian host and fleet departed from Lisbon to Alcácer do Sal in the last days of June 1217. Alcácer do Sal was surrounded and attacked using mines, battering rams, trebuchets, and siege towers.[87] As the Christian forces approached, the qaid of Alcácer do Sail, Abdallah Ibn Wazir, requested military aid from the Muslim garrisons in the region and on the morning of September 11 the Portuguese defeated an Almohad relief army from Jaen, Córdoba, Seville and Badajoz, at the Battle of Ribeira de Sítimos, while the crusaders remained behind to blockade Alcácer and guard their ships.[87] Already very weakened by that point, the defenders of Alcácer do Sal surrendered in mid-October and were allowed to leave with their lives.[87]

13th century sculpture of a horseman, by Mestre Pero.

In 1219, the knights of Santiago took Santiago do Cacém.[87] In the same year, king Afonso II signed a truce with the Muslims.

In the spring of 1226, king Sancho II sieged Elvas at the same time as the Leonese attacked Badajoz. The archbishop of Braga and the royal ensign Martim Anes commanded the royal host. The surrounding fields were pillaged and the city was captured, with the king risking his life in the action. When the Portuguese saw that the Leonese failed to conquer the powerful city of Badajoz and Autumn was approaching however, Elvas was razed and abandoned.

In the second campaign that king Sancho II undertook in Alentejo, he took Elvas and Juromenha, in 1229 or 1230. In 1232, the Hospitallers captured the villages of Moura, which surrendered after a brief attack, and then Serpa. That same year, the Hospitallers founded Crato and Castelo de Vide, whose territory the king had donated to the Order. It is possible that Beja was captured this year.

In 1234, the knights of Santiago captured Aljustrel. The conquest of inner Alentejo followed with the capture of Arronches, Mértola and Alfajar da Pena being taken in 1238. This same year, Portuguese forces would proceed south along the Guadiana into the modern-day district of Algarve and attack both Alcoutim as well as Ayamonte.

The definitive conquest of Algarve 1238-1249[edit]

Main article: Portuguese conquest of the Algarve
The cross of the Order of Santiago

Alcoutim in the modern-day district of Algarve was captured in 1238, as was Ayamonte, east of the Guadiana river, by king D. Sancho II with a fleet.

The mountain ranges of Algarve constituted a serious obstacle to the march of the Portuguese hosts to the south and southwest.[88] The commander of the knights of Santiago in Portugal Paio Peres Correia managed to cross them in 1238 still with the support of Garcia Rodrigues, a knight who knew their pathways well due to his previous occupation as a merchant, which allowed the knights of Santiago to bypass the main Muslim castles that they guarded the mountain paths, marching by night and camping by day, hidden in the valleys.[88]

The first castles to be taken were those of Alvor and Estômbar, in the region of Silves. From there, raids was launched into the rich fields around this important city.[88] By agreement with the emir of the Algarve Musa ibn Mahommed ibn Nasser ibn Mahfuz ("Aben Mafom" in Portuguese) Paio Peres Correia exchanged them for the castle of Cacela Velha, much further east, close to Ayamonte[88]

After a failed surprise attack on the castle of Paderne, the important town of Tavira was taken by the knights of Santiago.[88] Located on one of the few roads that crossed the Algarve lengthwise and gave access to the Alentejo, the castle of Salir was then taken.[88] Silves was taken by deception: a small detachment of knights was sent to attack the castle of Estômbar and false information was spread that Paio Peres Correia lead at head of this force. Once the emir had left with his troops in direction of Estômbar the walls were scaled and the city taken.[88] Paderne was captured shortly afterwards, with its entire garrison being slaughtered. The minor mountain castles of Monchique, Montagudo, Marachique, Ourique and Messines are likely to have subsequently surrendered after Silves was taken.[88]

The Castle of Aljezur.

By1249, only the settlements of Aljezur, Faro, Loulé and Albufeira still remained in Muslim hands. Their lords had submitted to the authority of the Merínids of Morocco and were difficult to take without the support of a fleet.[88]

Once king Afonso III had emerged victorious from the civil war that pitted him against his brother, he crossed the mountains of Algarve in the first weeks of March through Almodôvar, at the head of his royal host.[88] He was accompanied by his main supporters during the civil war, first among them Dom João de Aboim, but also the heads of the military Orders, such as the master of the Order of Calatrava in Portugal, Dom Lourenço Afonso, and grandmaster Paio Peres Correia at the head of the knights of Santiago, accompanied by Gonçalo Peres Magro, commander of Mértola.[88]

The important port city of Faro was sieged first. Expecting reinforcements from North Africa, the qaid of Faro Alboambre mounted some resistance but once the Portuguese fleet sailed up the river and blocked the port, the city surrendered, thus avoiding pointless bloodshed and ensuring its inhabitants a favorable status under Portuguese authority.[88]

The flag of Portugal during the reign of king Afonso III.

Once Faro was captured, Loulé surrendered after little resistance.[88] Porches and Albufeira surrendered to the Dom Lourenço Afonso.[88] Aljezur, the last town in the Algarve still in Muslim hands, was finally taken on one morning by grandmaster Paio Peres Correia.[88]

Aftermath[edit]

Upon completing the conquest of Algarve, king Afonso III adopted the title "King of Portugal and Algarve", created by king Sancho when he first conquered Silves, 60 years earlier.

As Ibn Mahfuz had declared himself a vassal of Castile, king Ferdinand III considered the Algarve to belong to him.[89] This caused a diplomatic crisis and even war between Afonso and Ferdinand, who invaded the Algarve. Only when the Traty of Badajoz was signed in 1267 did Ferdinand acknowledge the rights of Afonso over the territory and the border was established at the Guadiana River.

Official Portuguese participation in the Reconquista came to an end and so did the opportunity to gain territory and spoils, hence many knights and warriors crossed the border to find service under the kings of Leon and Castile as adventurers or mercenaries.

Land ownership by the military Orders in Portugal (and Spain).

The vast swaths of land captured in the south by the Knights of Santiago, the Templars, Hospitallers and Knights of Calatrava collectively made the military Orders easily the greatest territorial beneficiaries of the Portuguese Reconquest.[90]

The end of the Reconquista in Iberia did not mean the end of hostilities with foreign Muslim powers. Berber pirates and Muslim privateers from north-Africa remained active and often attacked Portuguese shores and shipping for centuries after 1249. In 1340 the Marinid sultan of Morocco Abu Hasan Ali invaded mainland Iberia with a large army in cooperation with the emir of Granada Yusuf I, however they were repulsed by a joint Portuguese and Castillian force at the Battle of River Salado.

Despite the conquest by Christian forces, many Muslims, as well as Jews, were tolerated and continued to reside in Portuguese territory, in Muslim or Jewish quarters respectively, paying increased taxes in exchange for the privilege, under conditions similar to those that had applied to Christians in Muslim Andalus. Jews were generally protected by medieval Portuguese kings who valued their professional skills and financial know-how.[91] The Jewish community adjusted to the new conditions, retained their identity and grew in numbers as well as prosperity.[91] Muslims in Portugal became known as mudéjares and they included some landowners and skilled artisans, but the majority were poor rural and urban labourers or slaves unable to emigrate, who provided limited unskilled labour force, had little economic significance, presented no threat to the Christian majority and were largely left unmolested in Muslim quarters which were allowed considerable internal autonomy.[91] It was only in the 16th century that they would be forced to convert or be expelled but there was never a systematic campaign to force Muslims or Jews to convert until then and when the final order for expulsion came few mudejáres remained.[91] Among other things, Mudejar art remained as a testimony of Muslim presence in Portuguese territory. A large number of words of Arabic origin came into current use in Portuguese as well.

Former mosque of Mértola rechristened as a church.

Memory of the reconquista and the violent or peaceful coexistence between Christians and Muslims persisted for centuries in popular Portuguese imagination and folk tales involving Enchanted Mouras, analogous to the tales of Christian princesses that circulated among Muslims.

See also[edit]

References[edit]

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  74. ^ Cushing, Dana (2017). "The Siege of Silves in 1189". Medieval Warfare. 7 (5): 48–53. JSTOR 48578126 p. 52.
  75. ^ a b Lay 2009, pp. 159–160.
  76. ^ Barroca 2006, p. 980.
  77. ^ a b c Selvagem, 1931, p. 67.
  78. ^ Herculano, 2014, p. 48.
  79. ^ Herculano, 2014, p. 49.
  80. ^ Alexandre Herculano: História de Portugal, Ediçoes Vercial, 2014 II, p. 49.
  81. ^ Alexandre Herculano: História de Portugal, Ediçoes Vercial, 2014 II, p. 50.
  82. ^ Selvagem, 1931, p. 72.
  83. ^ Selvagem, 1931, p. 73.
  84. ^ Selvagem, 1931, p. 76.
  85. ^ Eugene K. Keefe: Area Handbook for Portugal, Department of Defense, Department of the Army, 1977, p. 22.
  86. ^ Livermore, 1947, p. 112.
  87. ^ a b c d e f g Miguel Gomes Martins: De Ourique a Aljubarrota - A Guerra Na Idade Média, A Esfera dos Livros, 2011, pp. 127-145.
  88. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o António Castro Henriques: Conquista do Algarve - 1189-1249 - O Segundo Reino, Tribuna da História, 2003, pp. 57-83.
  89. ^ H. V. Livermore: A New History of Portugal, Cambridge University Press, 1966, p. 80.
  90. ^ Disney, 2009, volume 1, p. 85.
  91. ^ a b c d Disney, 2009, pp. 82-83.

Sources[edit]

  • Disney, Anthony (2009). A History of Portugal and the Portuguese Empire: From Beginnings to 1807, volume 1, Cambridge University Press.
  • Henriques, António Castro (2003). Conquista do Algarve - 1189-1249 - O Segundo Reino Tribuna da História.
  • Herculano, Alexandre, (1846). História de Portugal, volume I, Bertrand.
  • Heculano, Alexandre, (2014). História de Portugal, volume II, Edições Vercial.
  • Jensen, Kurt Villads, (2016). Crusading on the Edges of Europe: Denmark and Portugal c.1000 – c.1250, Taylor & Francis.
  • Lay, Stephen (2009). The Reconquest Kings of Portugal: Political and Cultural Reorientation on the Medieval Frontier. Palgrave Macmillan.
  • Livermore, H. V., (1947). A History Of Portugal, Cambridge University Press.
  • Livermore, H. V., (1966). A New History of Portugal Cambridge University Press.
  • Makki, Mahmoud (1994). "The Political History of al-Andalus (92/711–897/1492)". In Salma Khadra Jayyusi (ed.). The Legacy of Muslim Spain. Brill.
  • Martins, iguel Gomes, (2011). De Ourique a Aljubarrota - A Guerra Na Idade Média, A Esfera dos Livros.
  • McMurdo, Edward, (1888). The History of Portugal: From the Commencement of the Monarchy to the Reign of Alfonso III, S. Low, Marston, Searle, & Rivington.
  • Selvagem, Carlos (1931). Portugal militar: Compêndio de história militar e naval de Portugal : desde as origens do estado portucalense até o fim da Dinastia de Bragança, Imprensa Nacional de Lisboa.
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