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Modern Romanian (Romanian: română modernă) is the historical stage of the Romanian language starting from the end of the 18th century until today. In general, it is agreed that the modern epoch comprises three distinct periods: the premodern period starting from 1780 and lasting until 1830, the modern period from 1830 until 1880, and the contemporary period after 1881.[1] Some researchers place the end of this last category roughly after the Second World War and the "Socialist Period", thus separating the current state of the Romanian language from a different epoch.[2] Modern Romanian is characterized by the development of the Romanian alphabet and modern system of writing, initial Latin and Italian lexical item entries, followed by the central role of French in the development of the Romanian lexis, the development of literary styles, and standardization of the language.[3][4]

The history of the language during this stage is intertwined with the development of Romanian literature, the influence of great writers often cited along[3] with the efforts of institutions, mainly Romanian Academy, as the main factors for standardisation.[5]

Pre-modern period[edit]

Since the 16th century, Romanian language has been attested in its literary form.[6] The early books and texts, written with the Romanian Cyrillic alphabet, were predominantly religious or historical.[7] Personalities such as Ion Neculce, Miron Costin, Dimitrie Cantemir, and Constantin Cantacuzino, influenced by Humanism, promoted the use of Romanian instead of the regular literary language, Old Church Slavonic.[4] The Church language, however, continued its influence in the field of religious writings, but writers such as Archbishops Vaarlam and Dosoftei were reserved in introducing the needed neologism from it.[4] The first influences on the modern lexicon would come mostly from Latin, Greek, and Turkish, with an estimate of 850 new words from Modern Greek entering the language during this period.[4]

Samuil Micu Klein

The alphabet came under scrutiny initially in Transylvania where the main writing system was the Hungarian alphabet. The scholars of the Transylvanian School, educated in Catholic centers in Rome or Vienna, developed a writing system based on the Latin alphabet.[8] These efforts were supported by a rich publishing activity, out of which the printing of the book Elementa linguae daco-romanae sive valachicae, written by Gheorghe Șincai and Samuil Micu-Klein was recognised as the marking point between the old and the modern periods of the language.[5] However, due to differences between regions and social groups, the development of the written language into what is considered Modern Romanian was not immediate.[4]

The latter part of the Phanariote epoch[edit]

Elena Văcărescu - 1936 Paris. Descendant of the Văcărescu family, she was one of the many writers the aristocratic family gave since the late 18th century.

Between 1711–1716 and 1821, a number of Phanariots were appointed Hospodars (voivodes or princes) in the Danubian Principalities (Moldavia and Wallachia); the period is known as the Phanariote epoch in Romanian history.[9] The Greek dignitaries and their retinue brought with them significant Greek influence, mainly replacing the status of Old Church Slavonic and Romanian as literary languages. However, the growing influence of French as the prestige language that was felt at the conversational level in this educated environment opened access to the West for Romanian. In this context, early writers such as Ienăchiță Văcărescu, Dinicu Golescu, Costache Conachi developed a style characteristic of both influences.[10] Translations from Western writers, for example Vasile Pogor's translation of Voltaire's La Henriade, became more frequent with this generation.[11]

Transylvanian School[edit]

The main contribution to the beginning of modern Romania was taken by the Transylvanian School, a current developed within the Romanian Greek Catholic Church community from the Hapsburg territory.[12] "The Coryphaei" of this cultural movement, Micu-Klein, Gheorghe Șincai, Petru Maior and Ion Budai-Deleanu, took up the cause of representing Romanian political rights and appealed to the Latin origin of the people and language as the main argument.[13] Within this context, they devised the early Romanian alphabet based on Latin and mainly on etymologizing (Latinizing) principles.[6] A sample of text from Elementa linguae daco-romanae sive valachicae showing the etymologizing features compared to a Latin version:[14]

Nu ê têmp se jáci în pat; scoala te, n'áuzi quum tuna ẛi trazneẛte/Non est tempus jacendi in lecto; eleva te, non audis que tonat et fulminat.

The influence of their writings expanded to the Romanian principalities, with the work of teachers like Aaron Florian continuing the activity of another Romanian from Transylvania, Gheorghe Lazăr, spreading further to preeminent cultural personalities of the early 19th century like Ion Heliade Rădulescu and Nicolae Bălcescu.[15]

Establishment as literary language[edit]

Portrait of Ion Heliade Rădulescu

The first decades of the 19th century brought romantic enthusiasm to Romanian culture.[16] The period saw the rise and end of the Filiki Eteria in the Danubian Principalities[17] and with this event, the end of the Greek language branch of the Princely Academy of Bucharest that became Saint Sava Academy, the institution where Ion Heliade Rădulescu and Eufrosin Poteca promoted the usage of Romanian. Rădulescu, an adept at introducing neologisms into the language, especially from Italian which he saw as a more modern cultural model than the Latin model designed by the Transylvanian School,[18] managed to break the monopoly on public press held by the authorities and published in 1829 Curierul Românesc with contributions from Heliade himself, Grigore Alexandrescu, Costache Negruzzi, Dimitrie Bolintineanu, Ioan Catina, Vasile Cârlova, and Iancu Văcărescu.[19][20] A sample of text showcasing the etymologizing writing used by Rădulescu:[21]

Primi audi-vor quel sutteranu resunetu

Și primi salta-vor afara din grôpa

Sacri Poeți que prea ușôrâ țêrinâi

Copere, și quâror puțin d'uman picioarele împlumbâ.

Gheorghe Asachi

In Moldavia a similar endeavour was taken by Gheorghe Asachi, a friendly figure of the Transylvanian School, an opponent of the Phanariote regime, and an admirer of Petrarch and Moldavian chroniclers.[21][22] Asachi oscillated between returning to the archaic language of the religious writings, which he saw as a solution to the confusing tendencies of modernising, and standardizing the language, including the addition of neologisms by a single responsible institution.[23] His political orientation towards Russia allowed him to be involved in the creation of the Moldavian Regulamentul Organic, a constitutional-like set of laws during the Russian protectorate, and the publishing of the Romanian language magazine Albina Românească, the first of its kind in Moldavia.[24] Asachi went on to publish the supplements Alăuta Românească (1837–1838) and Foaea Sătească a Prințipatului Moldovei (1839).[25]

Modern period[edit]

With the end of the Phanariote epoch, the adoption of the Regulamentul Organic, and the establishment of Romanian as the main literary language of Wallachia and Moldavia the transitional period ended. The modern period partly overlapped with what is called the Golden Age of Romanian literature.[26][27] The drop in importance of Old Church Slavonic and the Church language,[28] the reorientation towards other languages as cultural model with the effect of losing hundreds of words from Modern Greek[4] (of which only about 10% remained in usage from the 19th century onward, according to linguist László Gáldi)[29] and Turkish, the use of the Romanian transitional alphabet and the advent of French as the major language of influence during and after what is called the Pașoptist generation[4][3] (in the semantic field of Modern World - over 70%, more than half of them are from French)[30] are the cumulative effects of the patchy process known as Re-Romanization, Re-Latinization, or Westernization of Romanian language.[3]

Historical events such as the 1848 Revolutions, the Crimean War, the Unification of Moldavia and Wallachia, and the Romanian War of Independence created favourable conditions for the adoption of the Romanian alphabet, the founding of universities in Iași (1860) and Bucharest (1864), and the establishment of the Romanian Academic Society in 1866,[31] which will later be renamed Romanian Academy.[4]

The Pașoptist generation[edit]

Although the modernizing current was initially led by the aristocratic and educated personalities of the Danubian Principalities, the profound changes of the early 19th century allowed the middle-class, the bourgeoisie, to participate more actively in the cultural life.[32] Educated at the schools and colleges of the older generation (Heliade's Saint Sava Academy or Asachi's Academia Mihăileană), they embraced the period's growing influence of French language and culture.[4] This superseded the previous cultural models of Latin and Italian in the spoken language.[32] The leaders of this generation were active during the 1848 Revolutions in Wallachia and Moldavia as well as being involved in the events across the Carpathian range, in the Hapsburg Empire.[33] The levelling effect of the French language in terms of lexical borrowing and the literary activities of personalities involved in the political life of all areas inhabited by Romanians brought the first signs of language standardisation.[34]

One of the first to take up the new ideas of the French Revolution and Romantic Nationalism was Nicolae Bălcescu, a former student of Aaron Florian and Ion Heliade Rădulescu, and a leading member of the French-based association of Romanian students from both Principalities presided by Alphonse de Lamartine.[35] His main publishing activity was in collaboration with August Treboniu Laurian at Magazin istoric pentru Dacia.[36] His impact came from his political activities and the posthumously published of Românii sub Mihai Vodă Viteazul in 1860 by Alexandru Odobescu, both imbued with a vision of unity of all Romanians and implicitly the Romanian language.[37]

Dacia Literară

Mihail Kogălniceanu started his literary activity in Alăuta Românească, the supplement to the Moldavian magazine Albina Românească.[37] He initiated in 1840 the first literary magazine, Dacia Literară, then Propășirea later renamed Foaie Științifică și Literară. Kogălniceanu's role in combating nationalist excesses, in particular the post-1840 attempts by Transylvanian and Wallachian intellectuals to change the fabric of the Romanian language by introducing strong influences from Latin or other modern Romance languages was recognised by Garabet Ibrăileanu.[38]

Vasile Alecsandri, one of the most prolific writers of this generation, drew inspiration from the folkloric material and adapted it into his work through a Romantic perspective.[37] His literary style, difficult to pin down to one of the cultural currents of his century, influenced generations after, including the late 19th century poet Mihai Eminescu.[38] Like Kogălniceanu, he was less receptive to the previous generation's proposals of modernising the language, looking to adopt features of the Wallachian style into his own- a process initiated by Constantin Negruzzi before him, which by mid-century had an effect on Wallachian scholars who reciprocated the gesture.[39]

The Pașoptist current had its critics, although limited in number and quality. The Bonjuriști (from French bonjour) were opposed by what Călinescu called the Antibonjuriști.[40]

The Transitional Alphabet[edit]

Letterhead of the Public Hospitals Administrations in Bucharest, Romania, in use shortly after the personal union between Wallachia and Moldavia

The Romanian Transitional Alphabet also known as the civil alphabet [41] was used between 1828 and 1859.[6] The idea belonged to Ion Heliade Rădulescu who made it public in his 1828 Gramatica românească.[42] The old Cyrillic alphabet had 43 letters and, as scholars like Ienăchiță Văcărescu before him noticed, not all had a clear use in Romanian. Rădulescu proposed a list of 29 letters: А, Б, В, Д, Г, Ԑ, Ж, Є, Ӡ, Ї, К, Л, М, И, О, П, Р, С, Т, Ꙋ, Ф, Ц, Х, Ч, Ш, Щ, Ъ, Џ, Ѱ, Ѵ, which he identified during his pedagogic activity as the more useful for his students.[43] However, even in his own publication Curierul românesc from 1829 and 1830 many of the letters rejected by Rădulescu reappeared.[44] The difficulty of putting in practice the transitional alphabet would last a few more years until in the same magazine, in 1835, the letters Î,R,S and Z replaced their Cyrillic equivalents. Another attempt four years later added hybrid letters combining Latin and Cyrillic features.[45] In 1844 the editors decided to publish Curierul de ambe sexe with Latin characters only.[46]

Elsewhere, in 1840 the first page of Iordache Golescu's Băgări de seamă asupra canoanelor gramăticești had no less than 4 alphabets represented, and within the text the Cyrillic and Latin letters alternated.[47] Kogălniceanu's Dacia literară and Propășirea had a moderate transitional alphabet, using the Latin D,E,M,N,Z. Only in 1855 România literară the letters Î,J,S,T will be added.[48] The Transylvanian Foaie pentru minte,inimă și literatură and Gazeta de Transilvania, edited by Bariț and Cipariu, had the first page printed with Latin letters, then the following in transitional alphabet, sometimes even alternating from Latin to Cyrillic from one page to another.[48] In 1856 in Wallachia a law decreed the use of the Latin alphabet for schools and manuals, but retained the letter Ъ in the new system.[49] Finally, in 8 February 1860, Ion Ghica decreed the use of the Latin alphabet in Wallachia, a model followed two years later by Moldavia.[50]

Founding of the advanced education institutions[edit]

The earliest schools teaching in Romanian have their roots in the Princely Academies of Wallachia and Moldavia where the Greek language teaching branch was seconded by a Romanian language one. After the end of the Phanariote epoch the Romanian language branch remained the only one in use. Although named "academies", the two institutions - Saint Sava Academy in Bucharest and Academia Mihăileană from Iași - they offered only college level education. Those looking for higher education had to study abroad, mainly in France where hundreds of the so-called Pașoptist generation intellectuals did or in major university centres of Central Europe such as Vienna or Kraków, closer to home.[51] With the Unification of Wallachia and Moldavia and the introduction of the Latin-based alphabet the stage was set for the establishment of advanced education. From the two academies, by decree of Alexandru Ioan Cuza, the University of Iași was founded in 26 October 1860 and the University of Bucharest in 4 July 1864. In Transylvania the first university was founded in 1872, called Hungarian Royal Franz-Joseph University, but due to Magyarization policies Romanian was not included as a language of education. However, a chair for Romanian language and literature was permitted.[52] The structure and model of the Romanian language institutions was inspired or implemented on a French system.[53] Several Romanian language schools were established in Macedonia to support the use of the language.[54]

Romanian Academy[edit]

Societatea Academică Română

A few years after the introduction of advanced educational institutions, the main academic forum was established.[4] Several scholars are credited with the idea or the continuous support for the creation of the single forum among them Gheorghe Asachi, the leading figure of early Moldavian education, and Ion Heliade Rădulescu, a recurring personality in the development of Modern Romanian.[54] The formal proposal was made and fulfilled by C. A. Rosetti, then the minister of Public Instruction, and in 1/13 April 1866 the Societatea Academică Română was created.[55] The institution will be the main stage for the academic debate between etymologizing (Latinizing) and broadly phonemic approaches to standards of writing.[6] Tendencies in writing such as Timotei Cipariu's noting of letters Ă, Î, Ș, and Ț with Latin characters without comma or Rădulescu's proposal of writing /k/ as qu, é and ó for /ea/ and /oa/ diphthongs were debated and in 1869 the society decided in favour of Rădulescu's system.[54] Only in 1881 did the Academy opt in favour of the phonemic principle.[54]

The use of Modern Romanian in these institutions, with the literary forms and neologisms, created an "intellectual style", adapted to the material and cultural reality of its time. Words like benign, cotidian, decență, depravare, impecabil, rural, rustic, urban took precedence in the higher cultural language before the mundane blând, zilnic, cuviință, desfrânare, fără cusur, țărănesc, sătesc, orășenesc, a tendency that will remain active in the contemporary language.[56]

See also[edit]

References[edit]

  1. ^ Sala, Marius (2012). De la Latină la Română [From Latin to Romanian]. Editura Pro Universitaria. pp. 159–160. ISBN 978-606-647-435-1.
  2. ^ Iliescu, Maria (2021-05-26), "History of the Romanian Lexicon", Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Linguistics, Oxford University Press, doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780199384655.013.471, ISBN 978-0-19-938465-5, retrieved 2023-08-22
  3. ^ a b c d Sala 2012, pp. 159–160.
  4. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Iliescu 2021.
  5. ^ a b Pană Dindelegan, Gabriela, The Grammar of Romanian, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2013, ISBN 978-0-19-964492-6, page 4
  6. ^ a b c d Ledgeway, Adam; Maiden, Martin, eds. (2016-06-30). The Oxford Guide to the Romance Languages. Oxford University PressOxford. p. 95. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199677108.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-19-967710-8.
  7. ^ Sala 2012, p. 159.
  8. ^ Kellogg, Frederick (13 June 2020). "A history of Romanian historical writing". Academia.edu. p. 3. Retrieved 4 August 2023.
  9. ^ "Phanariote | Greek Aristocracy, Constantinople, Elite | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 2023-08-28.
  10. ^ Călinescu, George (2001). Istoria literaturii române (in Romanian). Editura Litera. p. 53. ISBN 973-99869-1-9.
  11. ^ Călinescu 2001, p. 55.
  12. ^ Pavel, Eugen (2018). "The Transylvanian School - Premises Underlying the Critical Editions of Texts". Academia.edu. p. 1. Retrieved 6 August 2023.
  13. ^ Kellogg 2020, p. 18.
  14. ^ Micu-Klein, Samuil; Șincai, Gheorghe (2018). "Elementa linguae daco-romanae sive valachicae". Diacronia.ro. Retrieved 29 August 2023.
  15. ^ Kellogg 2020, pp. 25–26.
  16. ^ Kellogg 2020, p. 24.
  17. ^ Berend, Tibor Iván (2003). History derailed. University of California Press. p. 125. ISBN 9780520232990. JSTOR 10.1525/j.ctt1ppcrp.
  18. ^ Călinescu 2001, pp. 66–67.
  19. ^ Szabo, Lucian Vasile (February 2013). "Ion Heliade Rădulescu, Kiseleff and the censorship". ResearchGate (in Romanian). Retrieved 29 August 2023.
  20. ^ Călinescu 2001, p. 71.
  21. ^ a b Călinescu 2001, p. 67.
  22. ^ Mârza, Radu (2010). "Gheorghe Asachi și călătoria sa în Rusia". Academia.edu (in Romanian). p. 71. Retrieved 29 August 2023.
  23. ^ Mârza 2010, p. 78.
  24. ^ Mârza 2010, pp. 76–78.
  25. ^ Cărăbuș, Gheorghe Gabriel (2004). "Gheorghe Asachi – un separatist "avant la lettre"". ResearchGate (in Romanian). p. 191. Retrieved 29 August 2023.
  26. ^ Nicolau, Cătălin (June 2020). "Modernizarea limbii române literare în concepția lui G. Ivănescu". ResearchGate (in Romanian). Retrieved 29 August 2023.
  27. ^ Kellogg 2020, p. 28.
  28. ^ Nicolau 2020, p. 4.
  29. ^ Brâncuș, Grigore (2005). Introducere în istoria limbii române] [Introduction to the History of Romanian Language]. Editura Fundaţiei România de Mâine. p. 84. ISBN 973-725-219-5.
  30. ^ Schulte, Kim (2009-01-01). "Loanwords in Romanian". Haspelmath, Martin & Uri Tadmor (Eds.): Loanwords in the World's Languages: A Comparative Handbook. Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton, Pp. 230-259.
  31. ^ Nicolescu, Nicolae C. (2006), Enciclopedia șefilor de guvern ai României (1862-2006), București: Editura Meronia, p. 215
  32. ^ a b Nicolau 2020, p. 7.
  33. ^ Djuvara, Neagu (2023). "Între Orient și Occident. Ţările române la începutul epocii moderne (1800-1848)". Academia.edu (in Romanian). p. 334. Retrieved 29 August 2023.
  34. ^ Nicolau 2020, pp. 8–9.
  35. ^ Ursu, Ioana (1977). ""J. A. Vaillant, un prieten al poporului român"". Magazin Istoric (in Romanian): 15.
  36. ^ Călinescu 2001, p. 81.
  37. ^ a b c Călinescu 2001, p. 82.
  38. ^ a b "Spiritul critic în cultura românească/Veacul al XIX-lea. Factorii culturii românești din acest veac - Wikisource". ro.wikisource.org (in Romanian). Retrieved 2023-08-29.
  39. ^ Nicolau 2020, p. 9.
  40. ^ Călinescu 2001, p. 86.
  41. ^ Stînea, Carmen (2009). "Din colecțiile bibliotecii Muzeului Național al Unirii din Alba Iulia: primele manuale moderne românești din Transilvania" [From the Collections of the Library of the National Museum of Union Alba Iulia: The First Modern Romanian Textbooks from Transylvania] (PDF). Terra Sebus (in Romanian). 1: 267–277.
  42. ^ Cazimir, Ștefan (2006). Alfabetul de tranziție (in Romanian) (2nd ed.). Humanitas. p. 93. ISBN 973-50-1401-7.
  43. ^ Cazimir 2006, p. 98.
  44. ^ Cazimir 2006, p. 105.
  45. ^ Cazimir 2006, p. 108.
  46. ^ Cazimir 2006, p. 110.
  47. ^ Cazimir 2006, pp. 115–116.
  48. ^ a b Cazimir 2006, p. 117.
  49. ^ Cazimir 2006, p. 119.
  50. ^ Cazimir 2006, p. 120.
  51. ^ Sadlak, Jan (June 1991). "The Use and Abuse of the University: Higher Education in Romania, 1860-1990". Minerva. 29 (2): 195–225. JSTOR 41820839. Retrieved 30 August 2023.
  52. ^ Sadlak 1991, pp. 196–197.
  53. ^ Sadlak 1991, p. 198.
  54. ^ a b c d Nicolau 2020, p. 10.
  55. ^ Chindriș, Marius-Ioan (2023). "Melchizedek Ștefanescu and the Foundation of the Romanian Academic Society" (PDF). core.ac.uk. p. 118. Retrieved 30 August 2023.
  56. ^ Nicolau 2020, p. 11.
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