List of American slave traders

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When the Union Army entered Savannah, Georgia during the American Civil War, they occupied what is now called the John Montmollin Building; it had a large sign that read "A. Bryan's Negro Mart" and was described as having "handcuffs, whips, and staples for tying, etc. Bills of sale of slaves by hundreds, and letters, all giving faithful description of the hellish business."[1] The building became one of two schools for children of freedmen that were opened January 10, 1865. The schools had 500 students, and were operated by the Savannah Educational Association, which was "supported entirely by the freedmen, [and] collected and expended $900 for educational purposes in its first year of operation."[2]

This is a list of American slave traders, people whose occupation or business was the slave trade in the United States, i.e. the buying and selling of human chattel as commodities, primarily African-American people in the Southern United States, from the declaration of independence in 1776 until the defeat of the Confederacy in 1865. People who dealt in enslaved indigenous persons, such as was the case with slavery in California, would also be included. This list represents a fraction of the "many hundreds of participants in a cruel and omnipresent" American market.[3]

The Act Prohibiting Importation of Slaves was passed in 1808 under the so-called Star-Spangled Banner flag, when there were 15 states in the Union. The last slave auction in the rebel states was held in 1865.[4] In the intervening years, the politics surrounding the addition of 20 new states to the Union had been almost overwhelmingly dominated by whether or not those states would have legal slavery.[5] Slavery was widespread, so slave trading was widespread, and "When a planter died, failed in business, divided his estate, needed ready money to satisfy a mortgage or pay a gambling debt, or desired to get rid of an unruly Negro, traders struck a profitable bargain."[6] A slave trader might have described himself as a broker, auctioneer, general agent, or commission merchant,[7] and often sold real estate, personal property, and livestock in addition to enslaved people.[8] Many large trading firms also had field agents, whose job it was to go to more remote towns and rural areas, buying up enslaved people for resale elsewhere.[4] Countless enslaved people were also sold at courthouse auctions by county sheriffs and U.S. marshals to satisfy court judgments and settle estates; individuals involved in those sales are not the primary focus of this list.

Note: Research by Michael Tadman has found that "'core' sources provide only a basic skeleton of a much more substantial trade" in enslaved people throughout the South, with particular deficits in records of rural slave trading, already wealthy people who speculated to grow their wealth further, and in all private sales that occurred outside auction houses and negro marts.[9]

"Slave Trader, Sold to Tennessee" depicting a coffle from Virginia in 1850 (Abby Aldrich Rockefeller Folk Art Museum)
Poindexter & Little, like many interstate slave-trading firms, had a buy-side in the upper south and a sell-side in the lower south[10] (Southern Confederacy, January 12, 1862, page 1, via Digital Library of Georgia)
Slave trading was legal in the 15 so-called slave states (listed in order of admission to the Union): Delaware, Georgia, Maryland, South Carolina, Virginia, North Carolina, Kentucky, Tennessee, Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama, Missouri, Arkansas, Florida, and Texas (Reynolds's 1856 Political Map of the United States, depicting Missouri Compromise line, et al., Library of Congress Geography and Map Division)
Lyrics to a "singularly wild and plaintive air" about the interstate slave trade, recorded in "Letter XI. The Interior of South Carolina. A Corn-Shucking. Barnwell District, South Carolina, March 29, 1843"[11] in William Cullen Bryant's Letters from a Traveler, reprinted in The Ottawa Free Trader, Ottawa, Illinois, November 8, 1856[12]

List is organized by surname of trader, or name of firm, where principals have not been further identified.

Note: Charleston and Charles Town, Virginia are distinct places that later became Charleston, West Virginia, and Charles Town, West Virginia, respectively, and neither is to be confused with Charleston, South Carolina.

We must have a market for human flesh, or we are ruined.

— Frederick Douglass, on the predominant message from the Southern states to the U.S. government before the American Civil War, The Frederick Douglass Papers, vol. II, p. 405

A–C[edit]

D–F[edit]

Antebellum city directories from slave states are valuable primary sources on the trade: Slave dealers listed in the 1855 directory of Memphis, Tennessee, included Bolton & Dickens, Nathan Bedford Forrest and Josiah Maples operating at 87 Adams as Forrest & Maples, Neville & Cunningham, and Byrd Hill
Slave dealers listed in the 1861 directory of New Orleans, Louisiana, including C. F. Hatcher, Walter L. Campbell, R. H. Elam, Poindexter & Little, C. M. Rutherford, and J. M. Wilson
Slave dealers listed in the 1861 Louisville, Kentucky, city directory, including Tarleton and Jordan Arterburn

G–H[edit]

  • Thomas Norman Gadsden, Charleston[144]
  • Mr. Gaines (or Gains or Goins)[145][146]
  • Galbert, Texas[147]
  • Lewis Garland, North Carolina[148]
  • Matthew Garrison, Louisville, Ky.[149][85][150][151]
  • J. C. Gentry, Louisville, Ky.[152]
  • John M. Gilchrist, Charleston[153][25]
  • William Gillesbey, North Carolina and Mississippi[42]
  • Alexander Gilliam, Richmond[154]
  • C. E. Girardey & Co., New Orleans[155]
  • T. Glen, Huntsville, Ala.[156]
  • Thomas Golden, Fairfax, Va.[157]
  • Gordan or Gordon, Maryland and Mississippi[158]
  • Thomas Goude[159]
  • Grady & Tate, Richmond, Va.[92]
  • James Grant, New Orleans[160]
  • Hinton Graves, Georgia[65]
  • William Green[161]
  • Griffin & Pullum, Natchez, Miss.,[162] principals Pierce Griffin, W. A. Pullum, A. Blackwell, F. G. Murphy[163]
  • S. H. Griffin, Atlanta[91]
  • Lewis K. Grigsby, Natchez[21]
  • Andrew Grimm[18]
  • W. H. Gwin, St. Louis and Virginia[164]
Accounts of slave trading prior to 1830 are less common than accounts from 1830 to 1860, but this political column name-drops several: Eli Odom, Isaac Franklin, John L. Harris, Thomas Rowan, Gen. Woolfolk, Rice Ballard, John Armfield—all while perpetuating the long-running debate over whether or not U.S. President Andrew Jackson was a "negro trader" in the early 1800s ("Means Used to Elect Col. Bingaman" The Mississippi Free Trader, October 15, 1841)
Andrew Jackson's business model and actions as part of Coleman Green & Jackson met the definition of "slave trader" as understood by abolitionists, but as a campaign issue it fell flat, according to historian Robert Gudmestad, in part because "Southerners wanted to believe that there was a small group of itinerant traders who created most of the difficulties. It was this type of speculator, most thought, who destroyed slave families, escorted coffles, sold diseased slaves, and concealed the flaws of bondservants. They were the 'slave-dealers.' All others who bought or sold slaves, even if they did so on a full-time basis, were innocent."[165] (1828 publication, Miscellaneous Pamphlet Collection, Library of Congress)

I–L[edit]

M, Mc[edit]

Frederic Bancroft noted that in many towns "the same man dealt in horses, mules and slaves.[229] ("Yazoo City Livery Stable: Horses, Mules, Negroes, &c, &c. bought and sold on commission." The Yazoo Democrat, March 18, 1846)

N–P[edit]

Traders including Shadrack F. Slatter, Walter L. Campbell, Joseph Bruin, and J. M. Wilson all used this site at Esplanade and Chartres (previously Moreau) in New Orleans at various times[81]

R–S[edit]

T–Y[edit]

"Slave Transfer Agencies" listed in an 1854 Southern business directory, including Thomas Foster in New Orleans, a C. M. Rutherford partnership, and G. M. Noel in Memphis
Eyre Crowe, "Slave sale, Charleston, S.C.," published in The Illustrated London News, Nov. 29, 1856: The flag tied to a post beside the steps reads "Auction This Day by Alonzo J. White"; in 1856, Alonzo J. White, along with fellow slave traders Louis D. DeSaussure and Ziba B. Oakes, opposed a new South Carolina law requiring that slave sales take place indoors rather than on the streets. Their argument was that the law was "an impolitic admission that would give 'strength to the opponents of slavery' and 'create among some portions of the community a doubt as to the moral right of slavery itself.'"[315]
Boat landings at Memphis and Vicksburg c. 1913, perhaps not looking so different than they did when they were used as slave-trade hubs
"Thomson Negro Trader" had mail waiting for him in Little Rock, Arkansas, in November 1859

It's old Van Horn, de nigger trader
                         Hilo! Hilo!
He sold his wife to buy a nigger
                         Hilo! Hilo!
He sold her first to Louisianner
                         Hilo! Hilo!
And den from dat to Alabammer
                         Hilo! Hilo!

— said to be a fragment of a much longer "negro corn-shucking song," also called a working song or field holler; published 1859[353]

I never knew a slave-trader that did not seem to think, in his heart, that the trade was a bad one. I knew a great many of them, such as Neal, McAnn, Cobb, Stone, Pulliam, and Davis, &c. They were like Haley, they meant to repent when they got through.

— Letter of Lewis Hayden to Harriet Beecher Stowe[354]

See also[edit]

Notes[edit]

  1. ^ Alexandria, District of Columbia was retroceded to Virginia in 1847. The slave trade was banned in Washington as part of the Compromise of 1850; traders moved there facilities across the Potomac River and went back to work.[58]
  2. ^ Charles Town, Virginia became Charles Town, West Virginia in 1863.

References[edit]

Citations[edit]

  1. ^ CAMP (1865). The Camp of Freedom. A Plea for the Coloured Freedman. Reprinted from the "Eclectic" for April, 1865. George Watson. p. 7.
  2. ^ Blassingame, John W. (1973). "Before the Ghetto: The Making of the Black Community in Savannah, Georgia, 1865-1880". Journal of Social History. 6 (4): 463–488. doi:10.1353/jsh/6.4.463. ISSN 0022-4529. JSTOR 3786511.
  3. ^ Tadman, Michael (September 18, 2012). "Chapter 28. Internal Slave Trades". In Smith, Mark M.; Paquette, Robert L. (eds.). The Oxford Handbook of Slavery in the Americas. Vol. 1. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199227990.013.0029.
  4. ^ a b c d e f g Dew, Charles B. (2016). The making of a racist : a southerner reflects on family, history, and the slave trade. Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press. pp. 101–103, 117, 144 (last sale). ISBN 9780813938882. LCCN 2015043815.
  5. ^ Rothman, A. (April 1, 2009). "Slavery and National Expansion in the United States". OAH Magazine of History. 23 (2): 23–29. doi:10.1093/maghis/23.2.23. ISSN 0882-228X.
  6. ^ a b c d e Sherwin, Oscar (1945). "Trading in Negroes". Negro History Bulletin. 8 (7): 160–166. ISSN 0028-2529. JSTOR 44214396.
  7. ^ Bancroft (2023), p. 96.
  8. ^ Bancroft (2023), p. 125.
  9. ^ a b c d e f Tadman, Michael (1996). "The Hidden History of Slave Trading in Antebellum South Carolina: John Springs III and Other "Gentlemen Dealing in Slaves"". The South Carolina Historical Magazine. 97 (1): 6–29. ISSN 0038-3082. JSTOR 27570133.
  10. ^ Johnson (2009), p. 48.
  11. ^ "The Project Gutenberg eBook of Letters of a Traveller, by William Cullen Bryant". www.gutenberg.org. Retrieved 2023-08-15.
  12. ^ "The Ottawa Free Trader 08 Nov 1856, page Page 1". Newspapers.com. Retrieved 2023-08-15.
  13. ^ a b c Stowe (1853), p. 353.
  14. ^ a b Stowe (1853), p. 357.
  15. ^ "Ran away in Jail". Richmond Enquirer. May 5, 1820. p. 4. Retrieved 2023-09-17.
  16. ^ a b c d e f Bancroft (2023), pp. 175–177.
  17. ^ a b "South Carolina—Barnwell District". The Charleston Mercury. January 14, 1846. p. 3. Retrieved 2023-09-18.
  18. ^ a b c d e Schermerhorn (2015), p. 116.
  19. ^ a b Rothman, Joshua D. "Before the Civil War, New Orleans Was the Center of the U.S. Slave Trade". Smithsonian Magazine. Retrieved 2023-07-14.
  20. ^ "Three Negro Men". The Liberator. September 21, 1833. p. 2. Retrieved 2023-09-12.
  21. ^ a b c d e f g h i "The Public Meeting". Mississippi Free Trader. April 26, 1833. p. 2. Retrieved 2023-09-18.
  22. ^ "$10 Reward". Vicksburg Whig. February 19, 1834. p. 1. Retrieved 2023-09-18.
  23. ^ "Was committed to the Jail of Adams County". The Natchez Weekly Courier. December 13, 1843. p. 3. Retrieved 2023-09-18.
  24. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q "New Orleans, Louisiana, City Directory, 1861", U.S., City Directories, 1822-1995, pp. 83 (Buford), 280 (Little, slave dealer) 281 (Locket, negro trader), 305 (Martin), 489 (slave dealers), 2011 – via Ancestry.com
  25. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj ak al am an ao ap aq ar as at au av aw Pritchett, Jonathan B. (1997). "The Interregional Slave Trade and the Selection of Slaves for the New Orleans Market". The Journal of Interdisciplinary History. 28 (1): 57–85. doi:10.2307/206166. ISSN 0022-1953. JSTOR 206166.
  26. ^ "South Carolina, Sumter District". Camden Commercial Courier. May 12, 1838. p. 3. Retrieved 2023-09-18.
  27. ^ The National Archives in Washington D.C.; Record Group: Records of the Bureau of the Census; Record Group Number: 29; Series Number: M432; Residence Date: 1850; Home in 1850: Louisville District 2, Jefferson, Kentucky; Roll: 206; Page: 185b - occupation Negro dealer
  28. ^ a b c d e f g Fitzpatrick (2008), p. 29.
  29. ^ "Seventy Negroes FOR SALE at the Ferry Landing". The Weekly American Banner. December 20, 1844. p. 3. Retrieved 2023-08-21.
  30. ^ "Seventy Negroes". The Weekly American Banner. June 13, 1845. p. 2. Retrieved 2023-08-21.
  31. ^ "Negroes for Sale". Vicksburg Daily Whig. November 12, 1846. p. 3. Retrieved 2023-08-22.
  32. ^ a b Sellers (2015), p. 159.
  33. ^ "The Kidnappers". The Baltimore Sun. October 20, 1842. p. 2. Retrieved 2023-08-12.
  34. ^ "$100 Reward". Fayetteville Weekly Observer. March 1, 1843. p. 1. Retrieved 2023-09-18.
  35. ^ a b "Dissolution". Weekly Columbus Enquirer. October 25, 1853. p. 4. Retrieved 2023-08-15.
  36. ^ a b "Williams' Atlanta Directory 1859–60" (PDF).
  37. ^ "Rice C. Ballard Papers (UNC Libraries)". FromThePage.com. Retrieved 2023-08-04.
  38. ^ "Sheriff's Sale". The Democrat. September 3, 1845. p. 4. Retrieved 2023-09-18.
  39. ^ a b "Awful Murder". The Charleston Mercury. February 12, 1848. p. 2. Retrieved 2023-09-18.
  40. ^ a b "The two negroes". Tarboro Press. March 25, 1848. p. 2. Retrieved 2023-09-18.
  41. ^ a b c d "Another Modern Building Will Occupy Site of Former Slave Depot". The Montgomery Times. March 28, 1916. p. 1. Retrieved 2023-08-14.
  42. ^ a b c d e f g h i Sydnor (1933), p. 155.
  43. ^ a b Stowe (1853), p. 355.
  44. ^ "Selling a Free Boy for a Slave". The Louisville Daily Courier. August 4, 1855. p. 4. Retrieved 2024-01-12.
  45. ^ a b "Was committed to the jail". The Independent Monitor. July 24, 1840. p. 4. Retrieved 2023-12-26.
  46. ^ "Forgery and Scoundrelism". The Louisville Daily Courier. October 12, 1857. p. 3. Retrieved 2024-01-12.
  47. ^ "Broadside for the auction of 10 enslaved families in New Orleans". National Museum of African American History and Culture. Retrieved 2023-08-28.
  48. ^ University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign via Illinois Digital Heritage Hub. "A broadside advertising an auction of enslaved men and a woman, 1856". Digital Public Library of America. Retrieved 2023-08-28.
  49. ^ Johnson (2009), p. 55.
  50. ^ "Illustration of American Slavery" Newspapers.com, The Liberator, November 23, 1849, http://www.newspapers.com/article/the-liberator-illustration-of-american-s/143993035/
  51. ^ a b c d Sydnor (1933), p. 156.
  52. ^ "Murder at Atlanta Georgia" Newspapers.com, Independent American, September 24, 1856, https://www.newspapers.com/article/independent-american-murder-at-atlanta-g/143865375/
  53. ^ "Is Bound to Remain Rock-Ribbed Democrat". The Anaconda Standard. August 22, 1905. p. 11. Retrieved 2023-08-14.
  54. ^ a b Finley, Alexandra J. (2020). An intimate economy: enslaved women, work, and America's domestic slave trade. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press. pp. 101, 103. ISBN 978-1-4696-5512-3.
  55. ^ a b c d e Colby (2024), p. 33.
  56. ^ "Runaway Negro in Russell Jail". Richmond Enquirer. December 6, 1842. p. 3. Retrieved 2023-09-18.
  57. ^ Bancroft (2023), pp. 50–51, 57.
  58. ^ a b c d Corrigan, Mary Beth (2001). "Imaginary Cruelties? A History of the Slave Trade in Washington, D.C." Washington History. 13 (2): 4–27. JSTOR 40073372.
  59. ^ "C. J. Blackman & Co". The Weekly Mississippian. August 19, 1853. p. 3. Retrieved 2023-08-15.
  60. ^ a b c d e Schipper, Martin, ed. (2002). A Guide to the Microfilm Edition of the Papers of the American Slave Trade, Part 1. Rice Ballard Papers, Series C: Selections from the Southern Historical Collection, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill Libraries (PDF). Lexis Nexis. pp. vii–viii. ISBN 1-55655-919-4.
  61. ^ "The Confession of the Murderers". The Times-Picayune. July 20, 1841. p. 2. Retrieved 2023-09-18.
  62. ^ a b c d Colby (2024), p. 86.
  63. ^ a b c d e f Mooney (1971), p. 50.
  64. ^ Wilson (2009), p. 59.
  65. ^ a b Colby (2024), p. 100.
  66. ^ a b Schermerhorn (2015), p. 148.
  67. ^ "Stop the Runaway, $30 Reward for Ben". The Charleston Daily Courier. February 14, 1835. p. 1. Retrieved 2023-09-18.
  68. ^ "Nashville, 1860". U.S. City Directories, 1822–1995. Ancestry.com. p. 130. Retrieved 2023-07-22. Boyd, Wm. L. Jr., general agent and dealer in slaves, 50, north Cherry st., residence, 6, north Cherry st.
  69. ^ a b "Cash for Negroes". Spirit Of Jefferson. May 24, 1853. p. 1. Retrieved 2023-08-14.
  70. ^ a b "Cash for Negroes". Alexandria Gazette. March 11, 1851. p. 3. Retrieved 2023-08-14.
  71. ^ a b Colby (2024), p. 58.
  72. ^ Calonius, Erik (2006). The Wanderer: the last American slave ship and the conspiracy that set its sails. New York, N.Y: Saint Martin's Press. p. 125. ISBN 978-0-312-34347-7.
  73. ^ Stowe (1853), p. 341–342.
  74. ^ a b "Negroes for Sale". Vicksburg Whig. March 21, 1860. p. 3. Retrieved 2023-12-07.
  75. ^ a b c d Sellers (2015), p. 156.
  76. ^ a b c d Stowe (1853), p. 352.
  77. ^ a b savannahhistory (September 3, 2019). "From Slave House to School House: Rediscovering the Bryan Free School". Fact-Checking Savannah's History. Retrieved 2023-07-14.
  78. ^ "Committed to the Jail of Caswell county". The Weekly Standard. December 23, 1840. p. 4. Retrieved 2023-09-18.
  79. ^ "To the editors of the American, KIDNAPPING". The Maryland Gazette. July 9, 1818. p. 2. Retrieved 2023-09-17.
  80. ^ Bancroft (2023), pp. 316–317.
  81. ^ a b c d e Maurie D. McInnis (2013). "Mapping the Slave Trade in Richmond and New Orleans". Buildings & Landscapes: Journal of the Vernacular Architecture Forum. 20 (2): 102. doi:10.5749/buildland.20.2.0102. S2CID 160472953.
  82. ^ a b "Was committed to the jail of Pike County, Mississippi". The Weekly Mississippian. February 13, 1835. p. 3. Retrieved 2023-09-18.
  83. ^ "Was committed to the jail of Henrico as a runaway". Richmond Enquirer. March 24, 1826. p. 4. Retrieved 2023-09-17.
  84. ^ a b "Record Trade card for the "Great Negro Mart" in Memphis, Tennessee". Collections Search Center, Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved 2023-12-07.
  85. ^ a b John Clark 619 W Market Slave Dealer, page 56 – William P Davis 212 Sixth 201 W Green Slave Dealer, page 69 – Matthew Garrison page 97 –William W Wilson page 265 – Louisville, Kentucky, City Directory, 1861
  86. ^ "Charge of Inhumanity to a Negro". The Louisville Daily Courier. May 19, 1858. p. 2. Retrieved 2024-01-12.
  87. ^ "Attempt to Sell Free Negroes". The Louisville Daily Courier. October 26, 1859. p. 1. Retrieved 2024-01-12.
  88. ^ a b c d e f g h i Venet, Wendy Hamand (2014). A Changing Wind: Commerce and Conflict in Civil War Atlanta. New Haven: Yale University Press. p. 97. ISBN 978-0-300-19216-2. JSTOR j.ctt5vksj6. LCCN 2013041255. OCLC 879430095. OL 26884541M.
  89. ^ Colby (2024), p. 96.
  90. ^ Skolnik, Benjamin A. (January 2021). 1315 Duke Street – Building and Property History (PDF) (Report). Office of Historic Alexandria - City of Alexandria, Virginia. page=72
  91. ^ a b c Colby (2024), p. 101.
  92. ^ a b "Committed to the jail of Caswell County". The Weekly Standard. July 21, 1841. p. 3. Retrieved 2023-09-18.
  93. ^ "July 22, 1854, Lexington Observer". The Lexington Herald. May 12, 1913. p. 5. Retrieved 2023-09-11.
  94. ^ "Negroes for Sale". The Louisville Daily Courier. February 18, 1857. p. 1. Retrieved 2023-09-01.
  95. ^ "NOTICE". The Argus of Western America. March 21, 1822. p. 4. Retrieved 2023-09-17.
  96. ^ "Notice, was committed to the jail of Amite County, Mississippi". Southern Planter. October 6, 1832. p. 3. Retrieved 2023-09-18.
  97. ^ Sydnor (1933), p. 156–157.
  98. ^ "Creswell, an extensive negro trader". The Courier-Journal. June 26, 1851. p. 3. Retrieved 2024-01-12.
  99. ^ "A Guide to the Slave Trade Letters to William Crow, 1835-1842 Crow, William, Slave Trade Letters 12890". ead.lib.virginia.edu. Retrieved 2023-08-26.
  100. ^ The National Archives in Washington D.C.; Record Group: Records of the Bureau of the Census; Record Group and Number: 29; Series Number: M653; Residence Date: 1860; Home in 1860: Savannah District 4, Chatham, Georgia; Roll: M653_115; Page: 280; Family History Library Film: 803115 - occupation "negro broker"
  101. ^ a b c d e Zaborney, John J. (December 7, 2020). "The Domestic Slave Trade in Virginia". Encyclopedia Virginia. Retrieved 2023-08-14.
  102. ^ Schwarz, Philip J. "Hector Davis (1816–1863)". Encyclopedia Virginia. Retrieved 2023-09-30.
  103. ^ a b c Colby (2024), p. 92.
  104. ^ "$300" Newspapers.com, Weekly Raleigh Register, September 1, 1858, https://www.newspapers.com/article/weekly-raleigh-register-300/143865489/
  105. ^ a b "The antecedents of the civil war in Kentucky, 1848–1860 / by Shirley Gill Pettus". HathiTrust. p. 9. hdl:2027/wu.89089881957. Retrieved 2023-08-31.
  106. ^ a b c Keating, John M. (1888). History of the City of Memphis Tennessee: With Illustrations and Biographical Sketches of Some of Its Prominent Men and Pioneers. D. Mason & Company. p. 374.
  107. ^ Mooney (1971), p. 50–51.
  108. ^ Stowe (1853), p. 345.
  109. ^ a b c "Seeing the Unseen: Baltimore's slave trade". Baltimore Sun. Photographs by Amy Davis. May 4, 2022. Retrieved 2023-10-08.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
  110. ^ Johanesen, Harry (July 26, 1968). "George Dennis -- won freedom, riches". The San Francisco Examiner. p. 14. Retrieved 2024-04-20 – via Newspapers.com.
  111. ^ Bancroft (2023), pp. 186–191.
  112. ^ a b c "Dickinson & Hill - To Be Sold: Virginia and the American Slave Trade - Online Exhibitions". www.virginiamemory.com. Retrieved 2023-08-11.
  113. ^ Worth, Perk (September 10, 1878). "Slave Prisons". Bedford County Press and Everett Press. p. 4. Retrieved 2023-08-14.
  114. ^ a b c "cash for negroes". The Baltimore Sun. January 17, 1860. p. 4. Retrieved 2023-08-14.
  115. ^ Messick, Richard F. "Site of Donovan Eutaw St. Slave Jail - Site where the business of slavery once took place". Explore Baltimore Heritage. Retrieved 2023-08-14.
  116. ^ "For sale". The Baltimore Sun. November 25, 1847. p. 2. Retrieved 2023-09-18.
  117. ^ Sellers (2015), p. 157.
  118. ^ a b c "A history of Kentucky / by Thomas D. Clark". HathiTrust. p. 195. hdl:2027/uga1.32108012572122. Retrieved 2023-08-31.
  119. ^ "TORREY, the abolitionist in Baltimore jail..." Alexandria Gazette. September 27, 1844. p. 2. Retrieved 2023-09-18.
  120. ^ "List of runaway negroes in jail". Mississippi Democrat. January 13, 1847. p. 2. Retrieved 2023-09-18.
  121. ^ "Was committed to the jail of the Parish of East Baton Rouge". Baton-Rouge Gazette. November 22, 1834. p. 2. Retrieved 2023-09-18.
  122. ^ a b "Negroes for Sale". The Times-Picayune. February 8, 1840. p. 1. Retrieved 2023-12-11.
  123. ^ "Explosion of the steamer Kentucky". The Courier-Journal. May 23, 1861. p. 3. Retrieved 2023-08-16.
  124. ^ "Negroes for Sale". Fayetteville Observer. March 24, 1859. p. 4. Retrieved 2023-08-17.
  125. ^ Watts, Jill (November 27, 2005). "'Hattie McDaniel' (Published 2005)". The New York Times. Retrieved 2023-08-17.
  126. ^ a b c "Runaways - Eaton, Napoleon, Asbury Crenshaw, Alexander N. Edmonds, James S. Moffett, Hill & Powell". The Memphis Daily Eagle. November 20, 1849. p. 4. Retrieved 2023-10-29.
  127. ^ a b "Article clipped from Mississippi Free Trader". Mississippi Free Trader. January 5, 1853. p. 3. Retrieved 2023-08-21.
  128. ^ a b Wilson (2009), p. 92.
  129. ^ "United States Census, 1860", , FamilySearch (https://www.familysearch.org/ark:/61903/1:1:MFPH-4LG  : Thu Oct 05 04:02:16 UTC 2023), Entry for Ben Farley, 1860. Occupation: "slave depot"
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  335. ^ Bruce, Henry Clay (1895). The New Man: Twenty-nine Years a Slave. Twenty-nine Years a Free Man. Recollections of H. C. Bruce. P. Anstadt & sons. pp. 103–104.
  336. ^ "Committed to the jail of Warren county". Vicksburg Whig. January 15, 1844. p. 4. Retrieved 2023-09-18.
  337. ^ Bancroft (2023), p. 378.
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  341. ^ "Cash for Negroes". Nashville Union and American. October 6, 1852. p. 1. Retrieved 2023-08-14.
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  351. ^ "Committed on the 7th of October 1841". Baton-Rouge Gazette. November 20, 1841. p. 1. Retrieved 2023-09-18.
  352. ^ Colby (2024), p. 85.
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  354. ^ Stowe (1853), p. 378–379.

References[edit]

External links[edit]

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