Cambodia–Vietnam relations

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Cambodian-Vietnamese relations
Map indicating locations of Cambodia and Vietnam

Cambodia
Vietnam

Cambodia–Vietnam relations take place in the form of bilateral relations between the Kingdom of Cambodia and the Socialist Republic of Vietnam. The countries have shared a land border for the last 1,000 years and share more recent historical links through being part of the French colonial empire. Both countries are members of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN).

Country comparison[edit]

Common name Cambodia Vietnam
Official name Kingdom of Cambodia Socialist Republic of Vietnam
Coat of Arms/Emblem
Flag Cambodia Vietnam
Population 16,718,971[1] 96,208,984[2]
Area 181,035 km2 (69,898 sq mi) 331,699 km2 (128,070 sq mi)
Population density 87/km2 (230/sq mi) 295/km2 (760/sq mi)
Capital city Phnom Penh Hanoi
Largest city Phnom Penh Ho Chi Minh City
Government Unitary dominant-party parliamentary elective constitutional monarchy Unitary Marxist-Leninist one-party socialist republic
Head of state Norodom Sihamoni Võ Văn Thưởng
Head of government Hun Sen Phạm Minh Chính
Official language(s) Khmer[3] Vietnamese (de facto)[n 1]
GDP (nominal) US$27 billion[5] US$340.602 billion[6]
GDP (nominal) per capita US$1,614[5] US$3,498[6]
GDP (PPP) US$77 billion[5] US$1.047 trillion[6]
GDP (PPP) per capita US$4,645[5] US$10,755[6]

History[edit]

Early history[edit]

See also: Dark ages of Cambodia
Cambodian Prime Minister Hun Sen and Vietnamese counterpart Nguyễn Tấn Dũng at a ceremony in Bavet in 2007.

Both the Vietnamese and the Khmer (Cambodian) peoples descended from ancient Austroasiatic-speaking peoples who settled throughout the eastern and southeastern regions of Indochina. Vietnamese society, which began in the Red River Delta south of China, was heavily Sinicized while Khmer society, which was centered around the lower reaches of the Mekong river, was Indianized. During these early periods, the various polities of the two societies did not share a common border.[7]

A Khmer inscription dated 987 records the arrival of Vietnamese merchants from across the Annamite Cordillera.[8] Territorial expansions eventually resulted in the spheres of influence of the growing Vietnamese Dai Viet kingdom and the large, well-established Khmer Empire overlapping in the 11th century, leading to centuries of friction and conflict. The chronicle Việt sử lược states that the Khmer Empire first sent "tribute" (embassy) to Đại Việt—in fact probably further peaceful trading overtures—in 1012 and 1014.[8] The chronicle also recorded Khmer envoys arrived in 1069, 1086, 1088 and 1095.[9] Then in 1128 king Suryavarman II demanded the Vietnamese king in turn send envoys and tribute to the Khmer.[10] From 1128 to 1150, Đại Việt successfully repelled several invasions from the Cambodians.[11]

Much of the Vietnamese southward territorial expansion started by the Lý and expanded by the Trần kings from the 14th century onward came at the expense of Champa which became an increasingly compressed polity. By the 17th century, the Vietnamese military commander government Nguyễn lords encouraged settlers to push into Khmer territories, eventually wresting the Mekong Delta from the Cambodian court.[7] Today, Cambodia shares a 1,137 kilometres long border with Vietnam in the east and southeast.[12]

After the Cambodian–Dutch War, a Buddhist Cambodian king who had converted to Islam was ousted and arrested by the Vietnamese Nguyen lords after Ibrahim's brothers, who remained Buddhists, requested Vietnamese help to restore Buddhism to Cambodia by removing him from the throne.[13]

The 16th and 17th centuries marked the height of the Kinh people's (ethnic Vietnamese) penetration into the southern Mekong Delta, displacing the Khmers.[14] Military campaigns by Nguyen Phuoc Yen opened up more Khmer land for Vietnamese settlement which was followed by Nguyen Phuoc Lam's consolidation of Vietnamese control over the Prey Nokor (later Saigon) region in 1674. Both Mesa (modern Mỹ Tho) and Longhor (modern Vĩnh Long) fell to the Vietnamese by 1732. Nguyen Thien Chinh's and Nguyen Cu Trinh's armies in the 1750s took control of Mekong estuaries, cutting off Cambodia's riverine access to the sea.[7] The Vietnamese presence was bolstered following the Qing conquest of the Ming (1618–1683) when groups of Ming loyalist refugees came to the region seeking the protection of the Nguyễn lords. Those led by Mạc Cửu (1655–1735) helped settle Hà Tiên while others flocked to Bien Hoa and My Tho, pushing out the Khmers.[7] By 1775, the Cambodian court had ceded the areas of Preah Trapeang (Trà Vinh), Srok Khleang (Sóc Trăng), and Moat Chruk (An Giang) to the Vietnamese without bloodshed.[7]

Vietnamese invasions of Cambodia, 1811–1845[edit]

See also: Vietnamese invasions of Cambodia and Tây Thành Province

With the rise of the Nguyễn dynasty in the early 19th century, southern Vietnam came under tighter control of the court. The Vietnamese emperor Minh Mạng (1820–41) took the paternalistic views that the Khmers were backward and ordered his general Trương Minh Giảng to "civilize" the "barbarian" Cambodians. Cambodia itself was brought under Vietnamese control with the occupation of Phnom Penh. Truong reported: "we have decided that Cambodian officials only know how to bribe and be bribed. Offices are sold. Nobody carries out orders; everyone works for his own account".[14] A policy of cultural Vietnamization ("Nhat Thi Dong Nhan") was imposed, forcing Khmers to adopt Vietnamese attire, names, and language.[7] State-encouraged Vietnamese settlement in Phnom Penh ("Tran Tay") accelerated, and Vietnamese occupying forces spirited away native Cambodian leaders like Ang Mey to inland Vietnam in order to weaken Khmer resistance. However, Khmer uprisings in southern Vietnam from 1840 to 1845 made this policy of direct rule inconvenient and expensive for the Vietnamese court, which opted to keep Cambodia as a tributary state after the death of Minh Mang.[7]

After the Siamese–Vietnamese Wars, first in the 1830s and then a decade later, Cambodia became a vassal state under Vietnam and Siam, with the country becoming culturally and administratively Vietnamized. In 1863, the Thai-raised King Norodom of Cambodia (reign 1860–1904) signed a treaty with the French Empire, granting the latter mineral exploration rights if it would secure the country against Thai and Vietnamese attack.[14] However, during the colonial rule of French Indochina, which would later come to include Vietnam, French authorities imported Vietnamese laborers to Cambodia, where the growing minority came to dominate businesses and water resources in the country. In the First Indochina War for independence, some Cambodians, including King Norodom Sihanouk, fought against Viet Minh forces because they feared Vietnamese colonial domination.[15]

Vietnam War[edit]

After independence, the Kingdom of Cambodia maintained diplomatic relations with both North Vietnam and South Vietnam. However the Vietnamese Communists, both the southern Viet Cong and the northern People's Army of Vietnam, used Cambodian territory for bases and supply routes to fight the Vietnam War, despite the Viet Minh having previously assured Cambodian neutrality at the 1954 Geneva Conference. The southern Ngo Dinh Diem administration pursued Viet Cong even into Cambodian territory.[15] Earlier in the Bangkok Plot of 1959, the Diem administration supported a plot by politicians Sam Sary, Son Ngoc Thanh, and Dap Chhuon to overthrow Sinahouk's government and replace it with a right-wing pro-southern regime.[16] Despite Sinahouk's attempts to stay on Hanoi's good side and turning a blind eye to PAVN bases in his country, the PAVN also armed and sheltered the anti-government insurgency known as the Khmer Rouge starting in 1968.[17] By 1969, despite having previously adhered to Cambodian neutrality under Lyndon B. Johnson, the United States decided to bomb North Vietnamese and Viet Cong forces in the Cambodian borderlands during Operation Menu, as the PAVN was using it as a base to attack South Vietnam.

Despite attempts to negotiate with "whichever (Vietnamese state) will turn out to be most reasonable in... [demarcating] our common frontiers", Cambodian leader Norodom Sihanouk failed to get a hearing from a Vietnamese government about latent territorial disputes in Cochinchina and especially Phú Quốc island. Sihanouk himself was accused of accommodating North Vietnamese military bases in Cambodia, and widespread anti-Vietnamese riots culminated in the National Assembly voting to depose Sihanouk in March 1970. Referring mainly to Viet Cong operating in the border region, the new Cambodian president Lon Nol declared that all Vietnamese troops in Cambodia must leave, to maintain the country's neutrality. The North Vietnamese responded to this request (as well as calls for aid from the Khmer Rouge) by invading Cambodia, quickly conquering over 40% of the country. They proceeded to hand over most of the territory they had gained to the Khmer Rouge, and drastically stepped up support for them; because of both this and the invasion, the Khmer Rouge quickly grew from a few thousand fighters to several tens of thousands in the span of two months.[18] American and South Vietnamese forces attempted to dislodge the PAVN soon after during the Cambodian campaign, but failed, despite inflicting heavy losses. Over the next five years, the Cambodian Civil War raged with the North Vietnamese and China backing the Khmer Rouge, while South Vietnam and the United States backed Lon Nol's newly declared Khmer Republic. PAVN forces would engage Khmer Republic troops inside Cambodian borders many more times during this war in support of the Rouge, such as in Operation Chenla II.

The Khmer Rouge opposition came to power in Cambodia in 1975, shortly before the Fall of Saigon to Northern forces.[15]

Anti-Vietnamese sentiment was high in Cambodia during the Vietnam War; ethnic Vietnamese were slaughtered and dumped in the Mekong River at the hands of Lon Nol's anti-Communist forces.[19] The Khmer Rouge, despite being allied with North Vietnam, later imitated Lon Nol's actions.[20]

Cambodian-Vietnamese War[edit]

There have been many wars between Cambodia and Vietnam. In 1979, as a result of the Cambodian–Vietnamese War, Vietnam overthrew the Khmer Rouge, occupied Cambodia, and helped the foundation of client state People's Republic of Kampuchea. Vietnamese occupying soldiers and journalists discovered evidence of the Khmer Rouge's abuses, such as Tuol Sleng prison facility, and widely publicized them.[14]

Views on the Cambodian-Vietnamese War in Cambodia today are divided. Some believe that Vietnam's intervention helped free Cambodia from the Khmer Rouge's genocidal regime, while others view it as an invasion and occupation that served Vietnam's own interests in Cambodia.[21]

Recent events[edit]

In 2005, Vietnam and Cambodia signed a supplementary treaty to the original 1985 Treaty on Delimitation of National Boundaries, which Cambodia has deemed unacceptable. As a result, Vietnam has made several claims to Cambodian land based on the treaty that raised allegations of Vietnamese encroachment. In a statement made by a government minister of the former French Indochina colonial administration, Cambodia would have to give up two of its villages to Vietnam in return for keeping two villages Thlok Trach and Anlung Chrey, that were deemed Cambodian territory according to the 1985 treaty. It is not known which two villages Cambodia would have to give up. To resolve the dispute, in 2011, the Cambodian government announced it would speed the demarcation process with Vietnam.[22] On 24 June 2012, Vietnam and Cambodia celebrated the demarcation of the last marker on their shared border, marker 314. Prime Ministers Nguyen Tan Dung of Vietnam and Hun Sen of Cambodia personally attended the celebration to unveil the new marker and reaffirmed the two countries' cooperation and friendship.[23]

2014 anti-Vietnamese protests[edit]

Anti-Vietnamese protests have been ongoing [when?] since July 2014. Demonstrations took place after the Vietnamese embassy stated that Kampuchea Krom (Mekong River Delta) has long been part of Vietnam, and protesters and activists demanded the embassy to apologize and recognize Kampuchea Krom as Cambodia's former territory. On 9 July, the embassy issued a statement calling for Cambodia to respect Vietnam's sovereignty and refused to apologize. Protesters burned Vietnamese flag and currency,[24] and included[clarification needed] the Khmer Krom community and Buddhist monks.[25] During National Assembly president Heng Samrin's state visit to Vietnam, Vietnamese Prime Minister Nguyen Tan Dung called for Cambodia to take action against 'extremists' for the burning of the Vietnamese flag.[26] In October 2014, protesters threatened to burn the embassy itself. Protest leader Thach Setha prevented protesters from burning Vietnam's flag, leading one protester to call him 'useless'.[27]

The uptick in anti-Vietnamese sentiment resulted in one ethnic Vietnamese man, Tran Van Chien, getting beaten to death by a crowd, leading to widespread fear among Vietnamese companies and investors in Cambodia.[28][29] Vietnamese businesses were ransacked and pillaged by Cambodians, their workers forced to flee,[30] and there were two more instances of Vietnamese men getting mobbed to death by crowds.[31][32] Many saw this as a return to the 1990s riots, where there were several killings of ethnic Vietnamese.[33]

In 2015, Vietnamese monks were expelled from a Koh Kong coastal island by the government of Cambodia.[34]

Reasons behind anti-Vietnamese sentiments[edit]

Main article: Anti-Vietnamese sentiment § Cambodia

Cambodian antagonism against the Vietnamese run high, especially over border disputes and against Vietnamese illegal immigrants. The growing anti-Vietnamese sentiment in Cambodia can be attributed to many factors; recent anti-Vietnamese protests in Phnom Penh have been seen as the latest in the historical trend of politicians bringing up the notion of foreigners allegedly encroaching on Khmer territory to the Cambodian people to gain support.[35] The recent protests have demanded an apology from Vietnam and acknowledgement that Kampuchea Krom was formerly Khmer territory. A large section of Cambodian society, cutting across various classes and groups, are hostile to Vietnam and believe the problems in Cambodia are caused by Vietnam, as well as the sentiment that the Vietnamese are inherently devious and capable of savage acts; some believed that "the ethnic Vietnamese would help Vietnam in its ongoing scheme to colonize Cambodia".[36][37]

Previous examples of Cambodian anti-Vietnamese sentiment include the riots after the 2013 national election, which was allegedly "marred by irregularities, intimidation of members and leaders of the opposition parties".[38] Protestors not only claimed to have been "cheated" in the election, allegations of Vietnamese nationals being brought in from Vietnam to vote in their place were brought up. Accusations of Vietnamese involvements remain common regardless of how well evidenced they may be in actuality. In 2014, critics of the CNRP have argued that the party was using this distrust towards the Vietnamese to gain political points. Accusations were made against the leader of the CNRP, Sam Rainsy, for using the Vietnamese as a scapegoat concerning Cambodia's national issues; "while castigating Hun Sen and the CPP for being too close to anything Vietnamese and, thus, 'part of the problem.'"[39]

Despite the antagonism, it is rare for the Vietnamese to reciprocate the sentiment. However, a few days before Cambodia's national election, "Nguyen Chi Dzung, head of citizen protection and legal affairs of the embassy's consular section of Vietnam", also criticized Rainsy, the opposition party leader, for "capitalizing on the ethnic issue for political gains".[40]

Historically, extreme anti-Vietnamese sentiment have arisen over Vietnam's conquest of previously Cambodian lands, Vietnamese settlers in Cambodia, and Vietnam's military subjugation of Cambodia. This anti-Vietnamese sentiment has been directed both against ethnic Vietnamese in Cambodia and against the Vietnamese country itself, leading to pro-China sentiment among the Cambodian government and the Cambodian opposition, especially on the South China Sea dispute.[41] The issue with the territory of Kampuchea Krom stems to the colonial period of the two countries; in 1949, when France ceded Cochinchina to the new state of Vietnam, it attempted to resolve a territorial dispute in favor of the Vietnamese."[42][43] This resulted in a large population of Khmer being under the control of Vietnam instead of Cambodia; Cambodia lost 89,000 km2 of what it believes to be its territory.

A Cambodian Cham Muslim dissident, Hassan A. Kasem, a former military helicopter pilot who was persecuted and imprisoned by the Khmer Rouge and fought against the Vietnamese invasion, denounced Vietnam as trying to position itself as the savior of Cambodia from Khmer Rouge rule. He wrote that Vietnam had deceived the west into thinking of it as a "magnanimous liberator" during its invasion of Cambodia and ousting of the Khmer Rouge when in fact Vietnam used the war to benefit its own interests, such as subjecting Cambodian financial assets and national treasures to pillaging and theft, settling border disputes to its own advantage, trying to destroy Cambodian nationalism against Vietnam, benefiting from the mostly Khmer on Khmer violence perpetrated by the Khmer Rouge, and setting up its own Communist puppet government to rule Cambodia with Vietnamese officials pretending to be Khmer.[44] Kasem's article was republished on the Cham activist organization, "International Office of Champa", website, Cham Today.[45]

Thai and Chinese are viewed much less negatively than the Vietnamese by the Khmer, as China is the largest investor of Cambodia.[46]

Economic relations[edit]

Since the 1990s, relations between both nations have begun to improve. Both Vietnam and Cambodia are members of multilateral regional organizations such as ASEAN and the Mekong-Ganga Cooperation. Both nations have opened and developed cross-border trade and sought to relax visa regulations to that end.[12] Both governments have set official targets of increasing bilateral trade by 27% to US$2.3 billion by 2010 and to $6.5 billion by 2015.[12][47] Viet Nam exported US$1.2 billion worth of goods to Cambodia in 2007. While Cambodia is only the 16th largest importer of Vietnamese goods, Vietnam is Cambodia's third-largest export market.[12] In 2021, two-way trade between the countries hit nearly US$10 billion.[48]

Diplomatic missions[edit]

Embassy of Vietnam in Phnom Penh

See also[edit]

Notes[edit]

  1. ^ The Constitution of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam states that Vietnamese is the "national language", rather than the "official language". However, Vietnamese is the only language used in official documents and legal proceedings.[4]

References[edit]

  1. ^ "Population, total – Cambodia | Data". data.worldbank.org. Retrieved 10 January 2022.
  2. ^ General Statistics Office of Vietnam 2019.
  3. ^ "Constitution of the Kingdom of Cambodia". Office of the Council of Ministers. អង្គភាពព័ត៌មាន និងប្រតិកម្មរហ័ស. Retrieved 26 September 2020.
  4. ^ "The Constitution of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam". Vietnam News Agency. 15 January 2014. Archived from the original on 1 May 2019. Retrieved 13 June 2019.
  5. ^ a b c d "World Economic Outlook Databases". IMF. Retrieved 10 January 2022.
  6. ^ a b c d International Monetary Fund.
  7. ^ a b c d e f g Thu-Hương Nguyễn-Võ (1992). Khmer-Viet relations and the third Indochina conflict. McFarland. pp. 1–2, 4–5, 9–15.
  8. ^ a b Kiernan 2019, p. 157.
  9. ^ Kiernan 2019, p. 157-159.
  10. ^ Kiernan 2019, p. 163.
  11. ^ Higham, C., 2001, The Civilization of Angkor, London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, ISBN 9781842125847
  12. ^ a b c d "Viet Nam-Cambodia trade set to increase 27%". Vietnam Business News. 18 January 2008. Archived from the original on 23 January 2008. Retrieved 11 June 2008.
  13. ^ Ben Kiernan (2008). Blood and Soil: Modern Genocide 1500–2000. Melbourne Univ. Publishing. pp. 158–. ISBN 978-0-522-85477-0.
  14. ^ a b c d Brinkley, Joel (2011). Cambodia's Curse: The Modern History of a Troubled Land. PublicAffairs. pp. 22–23, 25, 55–56.
  15. ^ a b c Pouvatchy, Joseph R. (April 1986). "Cambodian-Vietnamese Relations". Asian Survey. 26 (4): 440–451. doi:10.2307/2644157. JSTOR 2644157.
  16. ^ Kiernan, B. How Pol Pot Came to Power
  17. ^ Frey, Rebecca Joyce (2009). Genocide and International Justice. Infobase Publishing. pp. 266–67. ISBN 978-0816073108.
  18. ^ "Victory in Vietnam: The Official History of the People's Army of Vietnam, 1954–1975." University Press of Kansas, May 2002 (original 1995). Translation by Merle L. Pribbenow. Pages 256–257.
  19. ^ Ben Kiernan (2008). Blood and Soil: Modern Genocide 1500–2000. Melbourne Univ. Publishing. pp. 548–. ISBN 978-0-522-85477-0.
  20. ^ Ben Kiernan (2008). Blood and Soil: Modern Genocide 1500-2000. Melbourne Univ. Publishing. pp. 554–. ISBN 978-0-522-85477-0.
  21. ^ Deth, Sok Udom; Suon, Sun (18 January 2018). Cambodia's Foreign Relations in Regional and Global Contexts.
  22. ^ "Cambodia to cede two villages to Vietnam". The Phnom Penh Post. 18 June 2012. Archived from the original on 6 August 2012. Retrieved 27 June 2012.
  23. ^ "Key Viet Nam-Cambodia border marker inaugurated". Việt Nam News. 25 June 2012. Retrieved 27 June 2012.
  24. ^ "Cambodia Defends Flag Burning Protest as 'Freedom of Expression'". Radio Free Asia. 15 August 2014. Retrieved 7 October 2014.
  25. ^ "Cambodia's ethnic Khmer Krom activists continue rally in front of Vietnamese Embassy". Global Post. 5 October 2014. Archived from the original on 5 October 2014. Retrieved 7 October 2014.
  26. ^ Mech, Dara (21 August 2014). "Official Rejects Vietnam's Reports of Punishment for Flag Burners". The Cambodia Daily. Archived from the original on 28 February 2019. Retrieved 7 October 2014.
  27. ^ Mech, Dara (7 October 2014). "Nationalists Renege on Threat to Burn Embassy". The Cambodia Daily. Archived from the original on 11 April 2019. Retrieved 7 October 2014.
  28. ^ Prak Chan Thul (28 April 2014). "Investors wary as anti-Vietnamese feeling grows in Cambodia". REUTERS. PHNOM PENH.
  29. ^ "Anti-Vietnamese sentiment grows in Cambodia". The Straits Times Asia report. PHNOM PENH. 30 April 2014. Archived from the original on 17 June 2014. Retrieved 9 September 2016.
  30. ^ Wallace, Julia; Vannarin, Neou (24 January 2014). "Cambodia protests unmask anti-Vietnam views". Al Jazeera. Phnom Penh.
  31. ^ Oaten, James (10 July 2014). "Cambodian opposition leader accused of touting anti-Vietnamese racism". Newsline.
  32. ^ Eang, Mengleng; Blomberg, Matt (18 February 2014). "Killing Reflects Danger of Anti-Vietnamese Sentiment". The Cambodia Daily. Archived from the original on 4 September 2017. Retrieved 15 September 2015.
  33. ^ Seiff, Abby; Vannarin, Neou (10 January 2014). "Anti-Vietnamese sentiment boils in Cambodia". Phnom Penh, Cambodia.
  34. ^ "Vietnamese monks evicted from Cambodia island, shrines burned". Bangkok Post. 10 April 2015.
  35. ^ Chheang, Vannarith (16 October 2015). "How Cambodian nationalism is driving border disputes with Vietnam". East Asia Forum.
  36. ^ Berman, Jennifer S. (1996). "No place like home: Anti-vietnamese discrimination and nationality in cambodia". California Law Review. 84 (3): 817–874. doi:10.2307/3480966. JSTOR 3480966. Archived from the original on 27 April 2019. Retrieved 11 July 2019.
  37. ^ Frewer, Tim (6 September 2016). "Cambodia's Anti-Vietnam Obsession". The Diplomat.
  38. ^ Um, Khatharya (2014). "Cambodia in 2013: The Winds of Change". Southeast Asian Affairs. 2014: 97–116.
  39. ^ Chea, Sotheacheath; Woodley, Dan. "Vietnam: The view from Cambodia". www.phnompenhpost.com. Phnom Penh Post. Retrieved 29 October 2014.
  40. ^ Khy, Sovuthy. "Vietnamese Embassy Official Criticizes CNRP's Racial Rhetoric". www.cambodiadaily.com. The Cambodian Daily. Archived from the original on 29 October 2014. Retrieved 29 October 2014.
  41. ^ Greer, Tanner (5 January 2017). "Cambodia Wants China as Its Neighborhood Bully". Foreign Policy.
  42. ^ McHale, Shawn (2013). "Ethnicity, violence, and khmer-vietnamese relations: The significance of the lower mekong delta, 1757–1954". The Journal of Asian Studies. 72 (2): 367. doi:10.1017/s0021911813000016. S2CID 162830836.
  43. ^ Hutt, David (20 October 2016). "The Truth About Anti-Vietnam Sentiment in Cambodia". The Diplomat.
  44. ^ Kasem, Hassan A (9 October 2013). "Vietnam's hidden hand in Cambodia's impasse". Asia Times. Archived from the original on 9 October 2013.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
  45. ^ Kasem, Hassan A. "Vietnam's hidden hand in Cambodia's impasse". IOC-Champa. Archived from the original on 30 June 2015. Retrieved 9 February 2017.
  46. ^ "Cambodia – Vietnam Relations". Global Security.
  47. ^ "Cambodia, Viet Nam target $2.3 billion in bilateral trade by 2010". Vietnam News. 21 January 2008. Retrieved 11 June 2008.
  48. ^ "Việt Nam, Cambodia to further elevate economic cooperation". 13 September 2022.

Bibliography[edit]

Further reading[edit]

  • Amer, Ramses. "The ethnic Vietnamese in Cambodia: a minority at risk?." Contemporary Southeast Asia (1994): 210–238 online.
  • Amer, Ramses. "Border conflicts between Cambodia and Vietnam." IBRU Boundary and Security Bulletin 5.2 (1997): 80–97 online.
  • Leighton, Marian Kirsch. "Perspectives on the Vietnam-Cambodia border conflict." Asian Survey 18.5 (1978): 448–457.
  • Leng, Thearith. "Small state diplomacy: Cambodia's foreign policy towards Vietnam." Pacific Review 30.3 (2017): 328–347. online
  • Levinson, David, and Karen Christensen, eds. Encyclopedia of Modern Asia. (2002) 1:426–427.
  • Morris, Stephen J. Why Vietnam invaded Cambodia: Political culture and the causes of war (Stanford University Press, 1999).
  • Westad, Odd Arne, and Sophie Quinn-Judge, eds. The third Indochina war: conflict between China, Vietnam and Cambodia, 1972–79 (Routledge, 2006).
  • Womack, Brantly. "Asymmetry and systemic misperception: China, Vietnam and Cambodia during the 1970s." Journal of Strategic Studies 26.2 (2003): 92–119 online.
  • International Boundary Study No. 155 – March 5, 1976 Cambodia – Vietnam Boundary
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