User:Psuneh/sandbox

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There is a large body of research supporting this notion that youth is a clear characteristic of attractiveness. This is stable across cultures.[1][2] The evolutionary perspective explains this via the proposal that the attraction to youth is adaptive.[3][4] Female fertility, which refers to the ability to reproduce, can be used to illustrate this. From their 20's, the fertility of a female begins to decrease with age.[5][6] This means younger females have a higher reproductive value and are fitter. Research reveals men show a preference for high reproductive value, as well as for good genes (i.e. inter-sexual selection).[2][4][7] Males are choosy. Trivers (1972) says this is due to the fact that human parental investment is equal in both sexes.[8]

The association between youth and fertility means youth can be considered an honest signal of female fertility. Thus, cues of youthfulness are desired by males and therefore considered attractive.[9] This preference affects male mate choice. [10][11] Females who exhibit cues of optimum youth have a higher mate value and so are more likely to be selected by males.[12][13] This increased mating success means youthful females will also have higher levels of reproductive success. Female cues of youth include large eyes, a small nose and long, healthy hair. Buss (1989) found these cues are also considered attractive by men.[2] Other researchers have replicated this finding.[4][13][14]

This evolutionary perspective can therefore explain some of the behaviours women carry out in order to increase attractiveness. For example, the removal of body hair (e.g. leg or armpit hair). Tiggermann and Kenyon (1998) found females generally do this in order to feel more feminine and attractive.[15] Over ten years later, Ridell, Varto and Hodgson (2010) found the same.[16] Hairlessness is associated with high levels of estrogen (a female hormone) whilst body hair growth is associated with high levels of androgens (male hormones).[17] Androgens generally increase during puberty. The removal of body hair therefore imitates a more youthful state. It can be considered an attempt to cheat the honest signal, of reduced youth, in order to still be considered attractive. Despite age, men will continue to interpret the lack of body hair as a cue of youth. Research supports this, showing that female hairlessness is considered sexually attractive by men and therefore sexually selected.[18]

Another way in which women attempt to look more youthful is by altering the appearance of their hair. It is common for women to dye their hair in order to remove greys (associated with ageing) or use hair extensions in order to increase length and thickness. This imitates healthy hair which, as aforementioned, is associated with youth. Symons (1979) also found long, luscious hair to be preferred by men.[4][14]

Cues of youth are not just important for males during inter-sexual selection. They also affect female-female (intra-sexual) competition for mates. In an analysis of twenty-two semi-structured interviews, Clarke (2002) found youthfulness to be one of the key characteristics of attractiveness according to older women.[19] This further justifies women's attempts to cheat honest signals of reduced. It is in order to increase attractiveness and subsequent mate value and mating success.

  1. ^ Sarwer, D. B.; Magee, L (2006). "Physical Appearance and Society". In Sarwer, D. B.; Prunzinsky, T; Cash, T. F.; Goldwyn, R. M.; Persing, J. A. (eds.). Psychological aspects of reconstructive and cosmetic plastic surgery: Clinical, empirical, and ethical perspectives. Philadeplphia, PA, US: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Publishers. pp. 23–36.
  2. ^ a b c Buss, D. M. (1989). "Sex differences in human mate preferences: Evolutionary hypotheses tested in 37 cultures". Behavioural and Brain Sciences. 12: 1–49.
  3. ^ Zebrowitz, L. A.; Rhodes, G. (2002). "Nature let a hundred flowers bloom: The multiple ways and wherefores of attractiveness". In Rhodes, G.; Zebrowitz, L. A, (eds.). Facial attractiveness: Evolutionary, cognitive and social perspectives. Westport, CT, US: Ablex Publishing. pp. 261–293.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link) CS1 maint: multiple names: editors list (link)
  4. ^ a b c d Symons, D (1979). The evolution of human sexuality. Oxford University Press.
  5. ^ Leridon, H. (2004). "Can assisted reproduction technology compensate for the natural decline in fertility with age? A model assessment". Human Reproduction. 19: 1548–1553.
  6. ^ Thornhill, R.; Thornhill, N. W. (1983). "Human Rape: An evolutionary analysis". Ethology and Sociobiology. 4: 63–99.
  7. ^ Darwin, C. (1859). On the origin of species by means of natural selection. London: Murray.
  8. ^ Trivers, R. L. (1996). "Parental investment and sexual selection". In Houck, L. D.; Drickamer, L. C. (eds.). Foundations of animal behaviour. Classic papers with commentaries. Chicago, IL, US: University of Chicago Press. pp. 795–838.
  9. ^ Little, A. C.; Burt, D. M.; Perret, D. I. (2006). "What is good is beautiful: Face preference reflects desired personality" (PDF). Personality and Individual Differences. 41: 1107–1118.
  10. ^ Westermack, E. (1921). The History of Human Marriage. London: MacMillan.
  11. ^ Buss, D. M.; Schmitt, D. P. (1993). "Sexual strategies theory: An evolutionary perspective on human mating". Psychological Review. 100: 204–232.
  12. ^ Zahavi, A.; Zahavi, A. (1997). The Handicap Principle. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
  13. ^ a b Ben, H. S.; Mineka, S.; Bailey, JM. (1998). "Sex differences in perceived controllability of mate value: An evolutionary perspective". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 75: 953–966.
  14. ^ a b Hinsz, V. B.; Matz, D. C.; Patience, R. A. (2001). "Does women's hair signal reproductive potential?". Experimental Social Psycholgy. 37: 166–172.
  15. ^ Tiggermann, M.; Kenyon, S. J. (1998). "The hairlessness norm: The removal of body hair in women". Sex Roles. 39: 873–885.
  16. ^ Ridell, L.; Varto, H.; Hodgson, Z. G. (2010). "Smooth talking: The phenomenon of pubic hair removal in women". Canadian Journal of Human Sexuality. 19: 121–130.
  17. ^ Barber, N. (1995). "The evolutionary psychology of physical attractiveness: Sexual selection and human morphology". Ethology and Sociobiology. 16: 395–424.
  18. ^ Van den Berghe, P. L.; Frost, P. (1986). "Skin color preference, sexual dimorphism and sexual selection: a case of gene-culture co-evolution?". Ethnic and Racial Studies. 9: 87–118.
  19. ^ Clarke, L. C. H. (2002). "Beauty in later life: Older women's perceptions of physical attractiveness". Canadian Journal on Aging. 21: 429–442.
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