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In atmospheric science, a cold pool (CP) is an evaporatively-driven downdraft of unsaturated air cooled by evaporation of precipitation. Cold pools can originate from regimes that range from thunderstorm clouds to precipitating shallow clouds, and they are ubiquitous both over land and ocean[1].

The characteristics and impact of cold pools vary depending on the properties of the parent convection, namely its rain rates, and the large-scale environment in which they originate[1]. Cold pools can have a strong impact on cloud cover and organization, by triggering new convection at the gust front and suppressing clouds in its interior[1].

Cold pools can be detected and studied using observations[2][3][4][1][5], high resolution numerical simulations[1], and simple conceptual models[6].

Characteristics[edit]

Cold pool properties, formation, and recovery[edit]

Cold pools consist of a large-scale mass of cold air[7] surrounded by warmer air (according to the American Meteorological Society or AMS). Over the ocean, these masses of cold and dense surface air are mostly caused by cooling through evaporation of precipitation from shallow and thunderstorm clouds in unsaturated air. Evaporation of precipitation requires energy, which is used in the form of latent heat, making the air inside a cold pool denser than the environmental air. In addition, the falling rain drags the air around it[8][9]. These effects accelerate the air mass towards the surface, leading to a rapid decrease in surface air temperature and generating a divergent flow that moves radially away from the location of the precipitation[3]. As the density current spreads horizontally outward, dry and cold air is injected into the boundary layer due to the penetrative downdrafts. This dries the central area of the cold pool, sometimes referred to as the cold pool wake, more than the edges. The edge or boundary of the outward-spreading density current is often referred to as the cold pool gust front, and is associated with wind enhancement and mechanical lifting of moist air[10][8][11][5]. The cold pool gust front can therefore usually be identified as a mesoscale cloud arc[5].

Cold pools are mesoscale features spanning 10-200 km in diameter, and last 2-3 h on average[12][1][13]. They end when their features can no longer be distinguished from the large-scale flow, i.e., when their signature in meteorological variables is within the background variability of the environment[5][1]. The temperature in the interior of a cold pool usually recovers faster than the temperature at the edge, since air from above the boundary layer is entrained into the cold pool wake[12]. Additionally, the moisture recovers much more quickly than the temperature[5][4].

Cold pools in different regimes[edit]

Cold pools are ubiquitous both over land and ocean[14]. Nearly all shallow clouds in the trade-wind region that produce precipitation rates larger than 1 mm/h are associated with cold pools[15].

Cold pool characteristics differ depending on the depth of the parent convection (deep or shallow)[5]. The properties of cold pools formed in the trades (characterized by shallow convection) were observed to vary significantly from properties of cold pools formed from tropical deep convection[15]. For example, they are associated with temperature drops that are on average 2 K weaker, and they experience less drying and smaller wind speed enhancement[4][5]. The trade wind region is mainly drier and is characterized by subsiding motion that caps the growth of convection and maintains clouds shallow.

Cold Pool Impacts[edit]

Triggering convection[edit]

Cold pools are found to trigger secondary convection at their edges, through the combination of mechanical and thermodynamic lifting[3][12][1]. Thermodynamic convective triggering is due to enhanced water vapor and virtual temperature in the gust front; it is prevalent in regions of deep convection with low vertical shear over the ocean[12]. Mechanical convective triggering also occurs at the cold pool edges when the spreading velocity is high enough[3][1]. Multiple colliding cold pools are more likely to trigger new convection[11][6].

Over land the effect of aerosols and surface fluxes are of high importance for the triggering of new convection[16].

Convective and cloud organization[edit]

An important role of cold pools can be found in the evolution of convective aggregation[6]. Cold pools tend to homogenize the convection and moisture fields through the divergence of near-surface air, and can therefore act to oppose convective self-aggregation[17]. This can be the case for deep [18] and shallow convection[19]. Cold pools have been pointed to as the source of the domain-dependence of cloud resolving models to initiate convective self-aggregation[17]. Convective self-aggregation can only occur at domains larger than ~200km. In larger domains, cold pools would dissipate before they could travel far enough to inhibit aggregation of convection[17]. There is a competition between the homogenizing effect of cold pools and the inflow of moisture from the dry regions into a convectively aggregated cell, which is thought to contribute to edge-intensified convection[20].

It has been shown that specific mesoscale cloud organization patterns[21] in the trade-wind region are associated with different occurrence frequencies and properties of cold pools[5]. This is due to the different environmental conditions, as well as rain and cloud properties, associated with different patterns[22][21]. It is not yet clear how important cold pools are for maintaining or initiating patterns[5]. Cold pools may also aid in the transition from shallow to deep convection[23].

Cloud cover[edit]

Cold pools are expected to have an influence on the cloud cover through their effects on both triggering and suppressing cloudiness. However, this is still an open topic of research[5][1]. In the trade wind region, this is especially important because the cloud cover greatly contributes to the planetary albedo[24]. Challenges in representing and observing microphysical processes, wind shear effects, and the recovery of cold pools, hinder the understanding of the relationship between cold pools and cloud cover[1].

Observations[edit]

Nasa-worldview-modis-cloud-holes
Snapshot from NASA's Terra/MODIS of cold pools in the vicinity of Barbados, on February 5th, 2020.

From satellite images, cold pools can be identified as mesoscale arcs of clouds surrounding clear-sky areas or stratiform decks[5]. Common detection methods rely on measurements of strong and abrupt surface temperature drops[5][3][4][2] or the onset of strong rain rates[25]. Cold pools can also be identified from changes in the depth of the atmospheric mixed layer[26], or from synthetic aperture radar images [27].

Cold pools have been studied from observations taken during several field campaigns. For example during the Rain in Cumulus over the Ocean campaign (RICO[15][28]) in the eastern Caribbean between December 2004 and January 2005, during the Dynamics of the Madden–Julian Oscillation experiment (DYNAMO[15][4]) in the Indian Ocean, from the Barbados Cloud Observatory over 12 years[5][29] and during EUREC4A[30][26], and from dense station networks (FESSTVaL, FESST@HH)[3], to name some examples.

Modeling[edit]

Example of simulated field of liquid water path (LWP).

Cold pools have been studied using Large Eddy Simulations[31][32] and Cloud Resolving Models[12][33] over smaller domains. Models reproduce the water vapor rings seen in observations, but may overestimate the moisture content of these rings[33][1][11]. Difficulties in modeling cold pools arise in the representation of turbulent mixing and microphysics, which occur at the very small scales[1]. The boundary conditions at the edges of the model domain must also be considered and impact the properties of simulated cold pools[34][35].


References[edit]

  1. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Zuidema, Paquita; Torri, Giuseppe; Muller, Caroline; Chandra, Arunchandra (2017-11-01). "A Survey of Precipitation-Induced Atmospheric Cold Pools over Oceans and Their Interactions with the Larger-Scale Environment". Surveys in Geophysics. 38 (6): 1283–1305. doi:10.1007/s10712-017-9447-x. ISSN 1573-0956.
  2. ^ a b Kruse, Irene L.; Haerter, Jan O.; Meyer, Bettina (2022-01). "Cold pools over the Netherlands: A statistical study from tower and radar observations". Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society. 148 (743): 711–726. doi:10.1002/qj.4223. ISSN 0035-9009. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  3. ^ a b c d e f Bastian, Kirsch, (2022-10). "Illuminating convective cold pools with a dense station network". doi:10.17617/2.3432702. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Cite journal requires |journal= (help)CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  4. ^ a b c d e Szoeke, Simon P. de; Skyllingstad, Eric D.; Zuidema, Paquita; Chandra, Arunchandra S. (2017-04-01). "Cold Pools and Their Influence on the Tropical Marine Boundary Layer". Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences. 74 (4): 1149–1168. doi:10.1175/JAS-D-16-0264.1. ISSN 0022-4928.
  5. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Vogel, Raphaela; Konow, Heike; Schulz, Hauke; Zuidema, Paquita (2021-11-12). "A climatology of trade-wind cumulus cold pools and their link to mesoscale cloud organization". Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics. 21 (21): 16609–16630. doi:10.5194/acp-21-16609-2021. ISSN 1680-7316.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  6. ^ a b c Haerter, Jan O.; Böing, Steven J.; Henneberg, Olga; Nissen, Silas Boye (2019-06-28). "Circling in on Convective Organization". Geophysical Research Letters. 46 (12): 7024–7034. doi:10.1029/2019GL082092. ISSN 0094-8276.
  7. ^ Glickman, Todd S. (2000). Glickman, Todd S. (ed.). Glossary of meteorology. Boston, Mass.: American Meteorological Soc. ISBN 978-1-878220-34-9.
  8. ^ a b Torri, Giuseppe; Kuang, Zhiming; Tian, Yang (2015-03-28). "Mechanisms for convection triggering by cold pools". Geophysical Research Letters. 42 (6): 1943–1950. doi:10.1002/2015GL063227. ISSN 0094-8276.
  9. ^ Torri, Giuseppe; Kuang, Zhiming (2017-09-01). "Corrigendum". Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences. 74 (9): 3125–3126. doi:10.1175/JAS-D-17-0160.1. ISSN 0022-4928.
  10. ^ Drager, Aryeh J.; Grant, Leah D.; van den Heever, Susan C. (2020-08). "Cold Pool Responses to Changes in Soil Moisture". Journal of Advances in Modeling Earth Systems. 12 (8). doi:10.1029/2019MS001922. ISSN 1942-2466. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  11. ^ a b c Feng, Zhe; Hagos, Samson; Rowe, Angela K.; Burleyson, Casey D.; Martini, Matus N.; de Szoeke, Simon P. (2015-06). "Mechanisms of convective cloud organization by cold pools over tropical warm ocean during the AMIE/DYNAMO field campaign". Journal of Advances in Modeling Earth Systems. 7 (2): 357–381. doi:10.1002/2014MS000384. ISSN 1942-2466. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  12. ^ a b c d e Tompkins, Adrian M. (2001-07-01). "Organization of Tropical Convection in Low Vertical Wind Shears: The Role of Cold Pools". Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences. 58 (13): 1650–1672. doi:10.1175/1520-0469(2001)058<1650:OOTCIL>2.0.CO;2. ISSN 0022-4928.
  13. ^ Wilbanks, Matt C.; Yuter, Sandra E.; Szoeke, Simon P. de; Brewer, W. Alan; Miller, Matthew A.; Hall, Andrew M.; Burleyson, Casey D. (2015-09-01). "Near-Surface Density Currents Observed in the Southeast Pacific Stratocumulus-Topped Marine Boundary Layer". Monthly Weather Review. 143 (9): 3532–3555. doi:10.1175/MWR-D-14-00359.1. ISSN 1520-0493.
  14. ^ Zipser, E. J. (1977-12-01). "Mesoscale and Convective–Scale Downdrafts as Distinct Components of Squall-Line Structure". Monthly Weather Review. 105 (12): 1568–1589. doi:10.1175/1520-0493(1977)105<1568:MACDAD>2.0.CO;2. ISSN 1520-0493.
  15. ^ a b c d Zuidema, Paquita; Li, Zhujun; Hill, Reginald J.; Bariteau, Ludovic; Rilling, Bob; Fairall, Chris; Brewer, W. Alan; Albrecht, Bruce; Hare, Jeff (2012-01-01). "On Trade Wind Cumulus Cold Pools". Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences. 69 (1): 258–280. doi:10.1175/JAS-D-11-0143.1. ISSN 0022-4928.
  16. ^ Schlemmer, Linda; Hohenegger, Cathy (2016-01). "Modifications of the atmospheric moisture field as a result of cold‐pool dynamics". Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society. 142 (694): 30–42. doi:10.1002/qj.2625. ISSN 0035-9009. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  17. ^ a b c Jeevanjee, Nadir; Romps, David M. (2013-03-16). "Convective self‐aggregation, cold pools, and domain size". Geophysical Research Letters. 40 (5): 994–998. doi:10.1002/grl.50204. ISSN 0094-8276.
  18. ^ Muller, Caroline; Bony, Sandrine (2015-07-16). "What favors convective aggregation and why?". Geophysical Research Letters. 42 (13): 5626–5634. doi:10.1002/2015GL064260. ISSN 0094-8276.
  19. ^ Narenpitak, Pornampai; Kazil, Jan; Yamaguchi, Takanobu; Quinn, Patricia K.; Feingold, Graham (2023-01). "The Sugar‐To‐Flower Shallow Cumulus Transition Under the Influences of Diel Cycle and Free‐Tropospheric Mineral Dust". Journal of Advances in Modeling Earth Systems. 15 (1). doi:10.1029/2022MS003228. ISSN 1942-2466. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  20. ^ Windmiller, J. M.; Hohenegger, C. (2019-12). "Convection On the Edge". Journal of Advances in Modeling Earth Systems. 11 (12): 3959–3972. doi:10.1029/2019MS001820. ISSN 1942-2466. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  21. ^ a b Stevens, Bjorn; Bony, Sandrine; Brogniez, Hélène; Hentgen, Laureline; Hohenegger, Cathy; Kiemle, Christoph; L'Ecuyer, Tristan S.; Naumann, Ann Kristin; Schulz, Hauke; Siebesma, Pier A.; Vial, Jessica; Winker, Dave M.; Zuidema, Paquita (2020-01). "Sugar, gravel, fish and flowers: Mesoscale cloud patterns in the trade winds". Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society. 146 (726): 141–152. doi:10.1002/qj.3662. ISSN 0035-9009. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  22. ^ Schulz, Hauke; Eastman, Ryan; Stevens, Bjorn (2021-09-16). "Characterization and Evolution of Organized Shallow Convection in the Downstream North Atlantic Trades". Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres. 126 (17). doi:10.1029/2021JD034575. ISSN 2169-897X.
  23. ^ Schlemmer, Linda; Hohenegger, Cathy (2014-08-01). "The Formation of Wider and Deeper Clouds as a Result of Cold-Pool Dynamics". Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences. 71 (8): 2842–2858. doi:10.1175/JAS-D-13-0170.1. ISSN 0022-4928.
  24. ^ Bony, Sandrine (2005). "Marine boundary layer clouds at the heart of tropical cloud feedback uncertainties in climate models". Geophysical Research Letters. 32 (20). doi:10.1029/2005GL023851. ISSN 0094-8276.
  25. ^ Young, George S.; Perugini, Samuel M.; Fairall, C. W. (1995-01-01). "Convective Wakes in the Equatorial Western Pacific during TOGA". Monthly Weather Review. 123 (1): 110–123. doi:10.1175/1520-0493(1995)123<0110:CWITEW>2.0.CO;2. ISSN 1520-0493.
  26. ^ a b Touzé-Peiffer, Ludovic; Vogel, Raphaela; Rochetin, Nicolas (2022-05-01). "Cold Pools Observed during EUREC4A: Detection and Characterization from Atmospheric Soundings". Journal of Applied Meteorology and Climatology. 61 (5): 593–610. doi:10.1175/JAMC-D-21-0048.1. ISSN 1558-8424.
  27. ^ Brilouet, P.‐E.; Bouniol, D.; Couvreux, F.; Ayet, A.; Granero‐Belinchon, C.; Lothon, M.; Mouche, A. (28 January 2023). "Trade Wind Boundary Layer Turbulence and Shallow Precipitating Convection: New Insights Combining SAR Images, Satellite Brightness Temperature, and Airborne In Situ Measurements". Geophysical Research Letters. doi:10.1029/2022GL102180.
  28. ^ Rauber, Robert; Heikes, Brian; al, et (2007-01-01). "Rain in Shallow Cumulus Over the Ocean: The RICO Campaign". Graduate School of Oceanography Faculty Publications. doi:10.1175/BAMS-88-12-1912.
  29. ^ Stevens, Bjorn; Farrell, David; Hirsch, Lutz; Jansen, Friedhelm; Nuijens, Louise; Serikov, Ilya; Brügmann, Björn; Forde, Marvin; Linne, Holger; Lonitz, Katrin; Prospero, Joseph M. (2016-05-01). "The Barbados Cloud Observatory: Anchoring Investigations of Clouds and Circulation on the Edge of the ITCZ". Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society. 97 (5): 787–801. doi:10.1175/BAMS-D-14-00247.1. ISSN 0003-0007.
  30. ^ Stevens, Bjorn; Bony, Sandrine; Farrell, David; Ament, Felix; Blyth, Alan; Fairall, Christopher; Karstensen, Johannes; Quinn, Patricia K.; Speich, Sabrina; Acquistapace, Claudia; Aemisegger, Franziska; Albright, Anna Lea; Bellenger, Hugo; Bodenschatz, Eberhard; Caesar, Kathy-Ann (2021-08-25). "EUREC4A". Earth System Science Data. 13 (8): 4067–4119. doi:10.5194/essd-13-4067-2021. ISSN 1866-3508.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  31. ^ Seifert, A.; Heus, T. (2013-06-10). "Large-eddy simulation of organized precipitating trade wind cumulus clouds". Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics. 13 (11): 5631–5645. doi:10.5194/acp-13-5631-2013. ISSN 1680-7316.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  32. ^ Hirt, Mirjam; Craig, George C.; Schäfer, Sophia A. K.; Savre, Julien; Heinze, Rieke (2020-07). "Cold‐pool‐driven convective initiation: using causal graph analysis to determine what convection‐permitting models are missing". Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society. 146 (730): 2205–2227. doi:10.1002/qj.3788. ISSN 0035-9009. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  33. ^ a b Chandra, Arunchandra S.; Zuidema, Paquita; Krueger, Steven; Kochanski, Adam; de Szoeke, Simon P.; Zhang, Jianhao (2018-10-27). "Moisture Distributions in Tropical Cold Pools From Equatorial Indian Ocean Observations and Cloud‐Resolving Simulations". Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres. 123 (20). doi:10.1029/2018JD028634. ISSN 2169-897X.
  34. ^ Li, Zhujun; Zuidema, Paquita; Zhu, Ping (2014-08-01). "Simulated Convective Invigoration Processes at Trade Wind Cumulus Cold Pool Boundaries". Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences. 71 (8): 2823–2841. doi:10.1175/JAS-D-13-0184.1. ISSN 0022-4928.
  35. ^ Li, Zhujun; Zuidema, Paquita; Zhu, Ping; Morrison, Hugh (2015-09-01). "The Sensitivity of Simulated Shallow Cumulus Convection and Cold Pools to Microphysics". Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences. 72 (9): 3340–3355. doi:10.1175/JAS-D-14-0099.1. ISSN 0022-4928.
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