User:Joemaza/Ilokano grammar

Ilokano grammar, akin to many of the Philippine languages, is very different in many respects from Indo-European languages such as English.

Ilokano is agglutinating. New words can be created from a simple root. This agglutinating characteristic is most apparent in its verbal morphology which has a Philippine-type voice system.

Word Classes

Determiners

Ilokano has two subsets of determiners. Articles are similar to the and a/an in English. Demonstratives are those words that point out something, this and that, whether what is being referred to is in space or in time, or is something previously mentioned.

Ilokano determiners show only two cases, core and oblique, unlike Ilokano pronouns which show three: absolutive, ergative, and oblique. In fact, core can function as absolutive or ergative.

Articles

Ilokano has two sets of articles, common and personal. Personal articles are used with persons, names, and titles of persons. Common articles are used with all other nouns including names of countries and cities.

Common

Case	Singular	Plural
Core	ti	dagiti
Oblique	iti	kadagiti

Personal

Case	Singular	Plural
Core	ni	da
Oblique	kenni	kada

Kinship terms, such as mother or uncle can take either set of articles. Preceded by the common article, the term is more generalized or conceptual. On the other hand, preceded by a personal article, the reference is more specific. The speaker refers to a member of his or her family.

Napan ti ama idiay eskuelaan ti anakna.
The father went to his child's school.
 
Napan ni ama idiay eskuelaan ni kabsat.
Father went to sister's/brother's school.

The same can also be said of titles or offices.

Nakitak ni maestra idiay padaya.
I saw teacher at the party.
(referring to the speaker's teacher in school)
 
Nakitak ti maestra idiay padaya.
I saw a teacher at the party. (any teacher)

Demonstrative Pronouns

Similar to the articles, demonstratives distinguish two cases (core and oblique) and two numbers (singular and plural). Like Spanish or Japanese, Ilokano has a three-way distinction regarding space. But, Ilokano has another set that refers to object or events not visible to either the speaker or the listener. In total, Ilokano demonstratives have a five-way distinction.

Spatial

Ilokano distinguishes the following levels of proximity:

• Proximal: Near the speaker, this
• Medial: Near the listener, that
• Distal: Removed from both speaker and listener, yonder

Spatial

Number	Case	Proximal	Medial	Distal
Singular	Core	daytoy ('toy)	dayta ('ta)	daydiay ('diay)
	Oblique	iti daytoy kadaytoy	iti dayta kadayta	iti daydiay kadaydiay
Plural	Core	dagitoy	dagita	dagidiay
	Oblique	kadagitoy	kadagita	kadagidiay

Temporal

The temporal series refers to objects and events in time as opposed to space. This series concerns with past time, whereas the spatial series concerns with present time. In any case, the objects or events are not visible to either speaker or listener.

• Recent past: Refers to things or events that are not visible to the speaker or the listener at the moment of the speech event.
• Remote past: Refers to persons who have died, things that no longer exist or events that occurred long ago.

Non-Visible

Number	Case	Recent	Remote
Singular	Core	daytay ('tay)	daydi ('di)
	Oblique	iti daytay kadaytay	iti daydi kadaydi
Plural	Core	dagitay	dagidi
	Oblique	kadagitay	kadagidi

Demonstratives are linked to their noun or noun phrases with the ligature a/nga.

Daytoy a lalaki
This man

Lalaki a daytoy
This man (with more emphasis on his spatial relation to the speaker)

Daytoy a dakkel a balay
This big house

Dayta nga immay nga ubbing
Those children who came

The forms in parentheses above do not require a ligature. But, they may not follow their nouns.

'Ta lalaki  That man
Lalaki 'ta DOES NOT OCCUR

Examples:

Nagtagtagainepak iti daydi nga apong.
I dreamt of grandmother. (grandmother had passed away)

Nabirukam 'tay kuartam?
Did you find your money?

Pronouns

Personal Pronouns

Ilokano personal pronouns distinguish three cases: absolutive, ergative, and oblique. They also distinguish three numbers: singular, dual and plural.

Accent marks in the following table are not written, but given here for pronunciation purposes.

Personal Pronouns

	Absolutive		Ergative	Oblique
	Disjunctive	Enclitic (-ak)	Enclitic (-ko)	Disjunctive
1st person singular	siák	-ak	-k(o)	kaniák
1st person dual	datá, sitá	-ta	-ta	kadatá
2nd person singular	siká	-ka	-m(o)	kaniam, kenká
3rd person singular	isú(na)	-Ø	-na	kaniana, kenkuána
1st person plural inclusive	datayó, sitayó	-tayó	-tayó	kaniatayo, kadatayó
1st person plural exclusive	dakamí, sikamí	-kamí	-mi	kaniami, kadakamí
2nd person plural	dakayó, sikayó	-kayó	-yo	kaniayo, kadakayó
3rd person plural	isúda	-da	-da	kaniada, kadakuáda

• The first person is the only person to distinguish a dual number. It is inclusive only to the speaker and one listener. If there are more persons addressed or referred to, one of the first person plural forms is the more appropriate form to use. Non-native speakers of Ilokano who are not familiar with this concept will tend to confuse the first person plural inclusive tayo with ta, the first person dual. For example, in a situation where the speaker and the listener are taking leave, a native would say Intan, whereas a non-native would use Intayon.

• The first person plural forms encode inclusivity. Inclusive forms refer to the speaker and at least two listeners or the listener and others. On the other hand, exclusive forms refer to the speaker and others. The listener is not included.

• Personal pronouns in the absolutive case have two forms: disjunctive and enclitic. Disjunctive or independent pronouns do not attach to any word and they can stand as predicates. On the other hand, enclitic pronouns must attach to the preceding word, whether a noun or a verb. When attached to a noun, they can indicate possession; to a verb, they indicate the agent of the verb.

• Oblique pronouns usually express conveyance to someone. They also mark the patient role (direct object) of verbs cast in the agent voice. Additionally, when used with nouns denoting people, for example, relatives, person's title, etc., they refer to that person's place of residence.

Examples of independent absolutive personal pronouns:

1) Siak ti gayyem ni Juan.
"I am Juan's friend."

2) Dakami ti napan idiay Laoag.
"It was us who went to Laoag."

3) Sikayo ngay?
"What about you? (plural) "

In 1 and 2 above, siak and dakami are the only words in the topic slot. The rest of the sentence is the comment. There is no copula to be as in English. In 3, sikayo virtually stands alone as ngay, a particle, only adds to the sentence.

Examples of enclitic absolutive personal pronouns:

Gumatgatangak iti saba.
"I am buying bananas."

Agawidkayonto kadi intono Sabado?
"Are all of you going home on Saturday?"

Examples of possessive use of the enclitic personal pronouns:

Napintas ti balaymo.
"Your house is beautiful."

Ayanna daydiay asok?
"Where is my dog?"

Examples of ergative enclitic personal pronouns:

Basbasaenda ti diario.
"They are reading the newspaper."

Intedna kaniak.
"He gave it to me."

Examples of oblique personal pronouns:

Imbagam kaniana!
"You told her!"

Adda kadakuada.
"He is at their house."

Enclitic Personal Pronoun Sequences

Enclitic personal pronoun sequences occur with goal oriented or transitive verbs, verbs that take both an agent and an object to complete its meaning. Enclitic personal pronouns may or may not combine when they occur in sequence, in the order of agent (in the ergative case, or -ko series) and goal (in the absolutive case, or the -ak series).

Agent	Patient
	1st Sing.	2nd Sing.	3rd Sing.	1st Dual	1st Plur. Excl.	1st Plur. Incl.	2nd Plur.	3rd Plur.
1st Sing.		-ka	-k(o)Ø	-	-	-	-kayo	-k(o) ida
2nd Sing.	-nak		-m(o)Ø	-	-nakami	-	-	-m(o) ida
3rd Sing.	-nak	-naka	/-naØ	-nata	-nakami	-natayo	-nakayo	-na ida
1st Dual	-	-	-taØ		-	-	-	-ta ida
1st Plur. Excl.	-	-daka	-miØ	-		-	-dakayo	-mi ida
1st Plur. Incl.	-	-	-tayoØ	-	-		-	-tayo ida
2nd Plur.	-dak	-	-yoØ	-data	-dakami	-		-yo ida
3rd Plur.	-dak	-daka	-daØ	-data	-dakami	-datayo	-dakayo	/-da ida

Notes

• The 3rd person is assumed when it is a patient. In other words, it appears as a zero (represented by 'Ø') morpheme. If there is a need for emphasis, then isuna, an independent absolutive personal pronoun, may be used, for example, Nakitak isuna, I saw him.
• Ida never combines with any of the pronouns. As a result, other enclitics may occur between the agent and ida, for example, Nailutuannan ida, He cooked for them already.
• -ko and -mo forms only occur when more enclitics, such as the future particle, are added, Ipankonto ida, I will send them.
• -na appears to signal a singular agent regardless of person, whereas, -da signals a plural agent.
• Some combinations do not exist, for example, 1st person singular agent and a 1st person plural patient. Typically, these non-existent forms are those where the agent is among the patients.

Nouns

Nouns are classed as either Common or Personal. The Personal nouns are introduced by the personal article ni. Names are marked by ni, for example, ni Juan ("Juan"). Kinship terms can also be preceded by ni, ni tatang ("dad"). They may be introduced by ti, the common article, if the speaker is making a generalization or wants to refer to a concept. All other nouns, the common nouns, are introduced by ti, for example ti aso ("'the dog"), ti balay ("the house").

Plural

Nouns can be made plural by using the appropriate form of the article.

In addition, plurality can be indicated in the noun form. Plurals formed in this way have the added nuance of distribution. Plurality is indicated using open or closed reduplication of the first syllable of the root. Or, a consonantal phoneme is geminitated as occurs with nouns denoting persons. Other nouns have a plural form that does not follow either of the preceding methods and must be learned individually.

Open Syllable Reduplication
kayong brother-in-law
kakayong brothers-in-law

Closed Syllable Reduplication
ima hand
im-ima hands

Gemination
ubing child
ubbing children

Other
lalaki male
lallaki males

Adjectives

Root Adjectives

Root adjectives are characterized as not having any of the common derivational affixes, such as a-, na-, etc. Many root adjectives denote physical characteristics. A great number of them, especially, denote physical abnormalities.

Example
bassit  small
dakkel  big
baro    new
daan    old (applied to inanimate objects)
baket   old (applied to animate females)
lakay   old (applied to animate males)
buttiog having a pot-belly (applied to men)
tuleng  deaf
pangkis cross-eyed/cock-eyed

Derived Adjectives

• Na-

The most common prefix for deriving adjectives. The na- prefix denotes the descriptive quality of the root.

Root	Gloss	Adjective	Gloss
alsem	bitterness, acidity	naalsem	sour, acid
gasang	spice, spiciness, heat	nagasang	spicy, hot (taste)

• Ma-

Some roots have a derived adjective form that begins with ma-. A number of roots have derived adjectives both in ma- and na-. The chief difference is that ma- prefix denotes a condition or an experience.

Root	Gloss	na-	ma-
sakit	sickness,pain,disease	nasakit painful	masakit ill, sick
lam-ek	chill	nalam-ek cold (weather)	malam-ek to be,feel cold
ulaw	dizziness	-	maulaw to be, feel dizzy

• A-

A fixed number of roots begin with a-, a prefix that is fossilized and no longer productive, e.g. atiddog, (long). As a result, the prefix no longer has a meaning of its own.

Root	Gloss	Adjective	Gloss
tiddog	length	atiddog	long
baba	lower part	ababa	short (height)

Adjective Degrees/Forms

• Positive

The positive form is the "dictionary" form or plain form from which the other degrees can be derived.

• Comparative

The comparative form of adjectives is used when comparing at least two nouns, where one has more of the characteristic denoted by the adjective.

The comparative form is derived by reduplicating the first syllable of the root, for example, naud-udi "(the) later (one in a sequence) < naudi "last" < udi "rear".

• Moderate

The moderate form of an adjective denotes that what is being describe has some degree of quality. In English this would be expressed by rather or some what.

The moderate degree is formed by prefixing paN- and suffixing -en to the root. The final -N is the homoorganic nasal of the first consonant of the root, which is lost in the case of stops.

• Comparative Superlative

The superlative is the form that is used when something has the greatest degree of a characteristic in comparison to other items.

The superlative is formed by prefixing ka- and suffixing -an to the root.

• Absolute Superlative

The intensive degree denotes that what it being described is virtually the epitome of the adjective's meaning. A near parallelism is the use if -ísimo/a in Spanish or -issimo/a of Italian.

The prefix naka- is added with the reduplication of the first three phonetic segments of the root, e.g., nakabakbaknang' "very wealthy, rich".

• Excessive

The excessive is used to denote that the quality of the adjective is extreme.

Simply, this degree is formed using the adverb unay with the positive form of the adjective, e.g., nabaknang unay "too, extremely, overly wealthy, rich".

• Intensive

This form corresponds to the use of how or so in English in a phrases of wonder, admiration or surpise.

The intensive is formed by prefixing nag- to the root, for example,nagbaknang "very wealthy" < baknang "wealth, riches". Commonly, the intensive is accompanied by the enclitic -(e)n, e.g., Nagbaknangen ni Maria "Maria's very rich!"

Root: pudot "warmth"

Degree	Form	Gloss
Positive	napudot	warm
Comparative	napudpudot	warmer
Moderate	pamudoten	rather warm
Comparative Superlative	kapudotan	warmest
Absolutive Superlative	nakapudpudot	very warm
Excessive	napudot unay	too warm
Intensive	nagpudoten	so warm! how warm!

Verbs

Main article: Ilokano verb

Although other word classes in Ilokano are not as morphologically diverse in forms, verbs are about as morphologically complex as the classic Indo-European languages of Latin, Ancient Greek or Sanskrit. Ilokano verb forms are characterized by reduplication and heavy prefixation.

Adverbs

Demonstrative Adverbs

Demostrative adverbs are similar to demonstrative adjectives and pronouns. Each series uses spatial reference and shows the same degrees of proximity: proximal, medial and distal.

Locatives

Locatives correspond to here and there. They have a three-way distinction similar to the demonstratives: proximal, medial and distal. They can be used with nouns to specify location. In addition, they can replace a noun phrase in the oblique case that concerns location.

Locative Determiners

Space	Form	Gloss
Proximal	ditoy	here
Medial	dita	there
Distal	idiay sadiay	there or yonder

Examples:

Napan iti balay.
He went to a house.

Napan idiay balay.
He went to that house (over there).
He went to the house.

Napan idiay.
He went there.

Manner

Ilokano has a set of adverbs that reference manner. They are a combination of kas "like/as" and the abbreviated determiner forms 'toy, 'ta and 'diay.

Locative Determiners

Space	Form	Gloss
Proximal	kastoy	like this, this way
Medial	kasta	like that, that way
Distal	kasdiay	like that, that way

Examples:

Kinitak a kastoy.
I looked at him like this.

Apay sinuratmo a kasta?
Why did you write it that way?

Nagsala a kasdiay.
She danced like that (over there, like she is dancing).

As with many word categories in Ilokano, prefixing ag- (a verbalizing prefix) results in verbs that give a generality of the action, possibly accompanied by some imitating gesture.

Examples:

Nagkastoy.
He went like this/He did this.

Agkasta kunana.
She said that she would go like that/do that.

Nagkasdiayak.
I went like that/do that (over there). (Pointing to someone who is in the midst of the action in question)

Adding pa- (a directional prefix), direction is implied.

Examples:

Nagpakastoy.
He went/came here. He went/came through here.

Agpakasta kunana.
She said that she would go/come there. She said she would go/come through there.

Nagpakasdiayak.
I went/came (over) there. I went/came through (over) there.

Numbers

Main article: Ilokano numbers

Ilokano has two number systems: one, native and the other, derived from Spanish. The systems are virtually used interchangeably. Yet, the situation can dictate which system is preferred.

Typically, Ilokanos use native numbers for one through 10, and Spanish numbers for amounts of 10 and higher.

Specific time is told using the Spanish system and numbers for hours and minutes, for example, Alas dos (2 o'clock).

For dates, cardinal Spanish numbers are the norm, for example, 12 (dose) ti Julio (the twelfth of July).

Particles

Main article: Ilokano particles

Typology

Ilokano employs a predicate-initial structure. Verbs and adjectives occur in the first position of the sentence, then the rest of the sentence follows.

Existential

Two existential particles, adda and awan, are used in Ilokano to express various modes of possession. While adda is used as either an absolute and current existential, awan is used as a negative existential.

Adda

Adda can indicate absolute possession, which signifies that the possessor owns the possessed object regardless of whether or not the object is with him at the moment.

Adda kostem?
Do you have a car?

Adda asawamon?
Do you have a spouse already?

It can also indicate current possession, meaning that the possessed object is currently within tangible reach of its owner. However, this requires the possessor to be in the oblique case (e.g., kaniák).

Adda ti tulbek kaniak.
I have the key (on me now).

For emphasis, possessors may also precede the possessed objects.

Adda kaniak ti tulbek.
I (am the one) who has the key.

Adda can combine with the spatial demonstrative adverbs to produce addadtoy Is/are here., addadta Is/are there and addaddiay Is/are there (yonder).

Awan

Awan is used as the negative of adda.

Awan ti luganko.
I don't have a car.

Awan ti aso ni Maria.
Maria does not have a dog.

Awan kaniak.
I don't have it.

Negation

Saan

Saan (variant haan) no, not occupies the predicate slot of the phrase in which it occurs. As a result, personal pronouns and other enclitics will bind to it instead of the word or phrase that saan negates.

Interrogatives

Interrogative words always are the first constituents of a sentence or phrase.

Simple

The following table contains common simple interrogatives.

Interrogative	Gloss	Notes
Ania	What?
Apay	Why?
Asino	Who?
Ayan	Where?	Used when inquiring for a place
Inton-ano	When?	Used when inquiring for a time in the future
Kaano	When?	Used when inquiring for present or past time
Kasano	How?
Mano	How much? How many?
Sadino	Where?	Used when inquiring where an action is performed
Siasino Sino Sinno	Who?

• Asino, Siasino, Sino, Sinno

There are not differences between these. Siasino, however, can denote pluratity.

• Ayan and Sadino

Ayan is used when inquiring the location of something, for example, Ayan ti susik? Where are my keys?. Sadino, on the other hand, is used in conjunction with verbs, e.g., Sadino ti papanam? Where are you going?.

• Inton-ano and Kaano

Inton-ano is used when inquiring for time in the future; kaano, for present or past time. Compare the following examples:

Inton-ano ti misa? When is the mass? When will the mass be?

Kaano ti misa? When is the mass?

Kaano daydi misa? When was that mass? (Note how the use of daydi adds emphasis of the past)

Complex

Complex interrogatives have a characteristic -ano appended. The following are a few that occur or are possible.

Interrogative	Gloss	Notes
Agpaano?	In which direction? To where?'	ag-, pa- (directional morpheme) and -ano
Maikamano?	In what order?	maika- (ordinal prefix) and mano (how much, many?)
Mamin-ano?	How many times?	mamin- (multiplicative prefix) and -ano
Taga-ano?	From where?	taga- (prefix of origin) and -ano
Kapin-ano?	How related?	kapin- (prefix of kinship relation) and -ano

Examples:

Agpaanoka? Where are you going to? Which way are you going?

Taga-anoda? Where are they from?

Kapin-ano isu? How is he related?

See also

• Ilokano language
• Languages of the Philippines

Category:Ilokano language Category:Grammars of specific languages