Jump to content

User:Cmboge2016/sandbox

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Introduction

[edit]
Three types of cell division; Binary Fission, Mitosis and Meiosis

Cell division is the process by which a parent cell divides into two or more daughter cells. Cell division usually occurs as part of a larger cell cycle.[1] In eukaryotes, there are two distinct types of cell division; a vegetative division and the reproductive cell division. Both of these cell division cycles are used in the process of sexual reproduction at some point in their life cycle. Both are believed to be present in the last eukaryotic common ancestor. Prokaryotes (bacteria) undergo a vegetative cell division known as binary fission, where their genetic material is segregated equally into two daughter cells. Apart from binary fission, there are alternative manners of division such as budding. All cell divisions, regardless of organism, are preceded by a single round of DNA replication. For simple unicellular microorganisms such as the amoeba, one cell division is equivalent to reproduction – an entire new organism is created. On a larger scale, mitotic cell division can create progeny from multicellular organisms, such as plants that grow from cuttings. The primary concern of cell division is the maintenance of the original cell's genome. Before division can occur, the genomic information that is stored in chromosomes must be replicated, and the duplicated genome must be separated cleanly between cells.

Eukaryotes cell division

[edit]

In eukaryotes there are two distinct types of cell division which are as followed:

1.     A vegetative division:

This is whereby each daughter cell is genetically identical to the parent cell. This process is called Mitosis. [2]Mitotic cell division enables sexually reproducing organisms to develop from the one-celled zygote, which itself was produced by meiotic cell division from gametes.[3] [4]After growth, cell division by mitosis allows for continual construction and repair of the organism.

2.     A reproductive cell division:

This is where the number of chromosomes in the daughter cells is reduced by half to produce haploid gametes (meiosis). Meiosis results in four haploid daughter cells by undergoing one round of DNA replication followed by two divisions. Homologous chromosomes are separated in the first division, and sister chromatids are separated in the second division.

Phases of eukaryotic cell division

[edit]

In eukaryotic cell division there are different stages in the cell cycle. These stages go from interphase, prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase and cytokinesis

Interphase

[edit]

Interphase is the process a cell must go through before mitosis, meiosis, and cytokinesis. [5]Interphase consists of three main phases: G1, S, and G2. G1 is a time of growth for the cell where specialized cellular functions occur in order to prepare the cell for DNA Replication.[6] There are checkpoints during interphase that allow the cell to be either advance or halt further development. In S phase, the chromosomes are replicated in order for the genetic content to be maintained. [7]During G2, the cell undergoes the final stages of growth before it enters the M phase, where spindles are synthesized. The M phase, can be either mitosis or meiosis depending on the type of cell. Germ cells, or gametes, undergo meiosis, while somatic cells will undergo mitosis. After the cell proceeds successfully through the M phase, it may then undergo cell division through cytokinesis. The control of each checkpoint is controlled by cyclin and cyclin-dependent kinases. The progression of interphase is the result of the increased amount of cyclin. As the amount of cyclin increases, more and more cyclin dependent kinases attach to cyclin signaling the cell further into interphase. At the peak of the cyclin, attached to the cyclin dependent kinases this system pushes the cell out of interphase and into the M phase, where mitosis, meiosis, and cytokinesis occur.[8] There are three transition checkpoints the cell has to go through before entering the M phase. The most important being the G1-S transition checkpoint. If the cell does not pass this checkpoint, it results in the cell exiting the cell cycle.[9]

Prophase

[edit]

Prophase is the first stage of division. The nuclear envelope is broken down, long strands of chromatin condense to form shorter more visible strands called chromosomes, the nucleolus disappears, and microtubules attach to the chromosomes at the kinetochores present in the centromere.[10] Microtubules associated with the alignment and separation of chromosomes are referred to as the spindle and spindle fibers. Chromosomes will also be visible under a microscope and will be connected at the centromere. During this condensation and alignment period in meiosis, the homologous chromosomes undergo a break in their double-stranded DNA at the same locations, followed by a recombination of the now fragmented parental DNA strands into non-parental combinations, known as crossing over.[11] This process is evidenced to be caused in a large part by the highly conserved Spo11 protein through a mechanism similar to that seen with toposomerase in DNA replication and transcription.[12]


Prometaphase

Prometaphase is the second stage or phase of mitosis. In this stage the duplicated material in the nucleus is separated into two identical daughter cells. One important event that takes place is the nuclear envelop breaks down resulting into the freedom of the sister chromatids. This happens to separate the two daughter cells. In addition, during this phase, a protein named Kinetochore is formed around the centromere. Protein filaments named kinetochore microtubules extend from poles on both sides of the cell and attach themselves to the kinetochores. Once this phase has been successfully completed, the cell moves onto the third phase called metaphase.[13]

Metaphase

In metaphase, the centromeres of the chromosomes convene themselves on the metaphase plate (or equatorial plate), an imaginary line that is equidistant from the two centrosome poles and held together by complex complexes known as cohesins. Chromosomes line up in the middle of the cell by microtubule organizing centers (MTOCs) pushing and pulling on centromeres of both chromatids thereby causing the chromosome to move to the center. At this point the chromosomes are still condensing and are currently one step away from being the most coiled and condensed they will be, and the spindle fibers have already connected to the kinetochores.[14] During this phase all the microtubules, with the exception of the kinetochores, are in a state of instability promoting their progression towards anaphase.[15] At this point, the chromosomes are ready to split into opposite poles of the cell towards the spindle to which they are connected.[16]

Anaphase

[edit]

Anaphase is a very short stage of the cell cycle and occurs after the chromosomes align at the mitotic plate. Kinetochores emit anaphase-inhibition signals until their attachment to the mitotic spindle. Once the final chromosome is properly aligned and attached the final signal dissipates and triggers the abrupt shift to anaphase. This abrupt shift is caused by the activation of the anaphase-promoting complex and its function of tagging degradation of proteins important towards the metaphase-anaphase transition. One of these proteins that is broken down is securin which through its breakdown releases the enzyme separase that cleaves the cohesin rings holding together the sister chromatids thereby leading to the chromosomes separating.[17] After the chromosomes line up in the middle of the cell, the spindle fibers will pull them apart. The chromosomes are split apart while the sister chromatids move to opposite sides of the cell.[18] As the sister chromatids are being pulled apart, the cell and plasma are elongated by non-kinetochore microtubules.[19]

Telophase

[edit]

Telophase is one of the last stages of the cell cycle in which a cleavage furrow splits the cells cytoplasm (cytokinesis) and chromatin. This occurs through the synthesis of a new nuclear envelopes that forms around the chromatin gathered at each pole and the reformation of the nucleolus as the chromosomes decondense their chromatin back to the loose state it possessed during interphase. [20][21]The division of the cellular contents is not always equal and can vary by cell type as seen with oocyte formation where one of the four daughter cells possess the majority of the cytoplasm.[22]

Image of a cell going through cytokinesis resulting in two daughter cells

Cytokinesis

[edit]

The last stage of the cell division process is cytokinesis. In this stage there is a cytoplasmic division that occurs at the end or either mitosis or meiosis. At this stage there is a resulting irreversible separation leading to two daughter cells. Cell division plays a important role in determining the fate of the cell. This is due to there being the possibility of an asymmetric division. This as a result leads to cytokinesis producing unequal daughter cells containing completely different amounts or concentrations of fate-determining molecules. [23]

Variants

[edit]

Cells are broadly classified into two main categories:

1.     Prokaryotic cells: These are simple, single-celled, non-nucleated cells that lack membrane-bound organelles.

2.      Eukaryotic cells: These are complex, nucleated cells that contain organelles. They are also enclosed by a plasma membrane.

Image of the mitotic spindle in a human cell showing microtubules in green, chromosomes (DNA) in blue, and kinetochores in red

These differences result in the divisions of eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells being different. Due to their structural differences, eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells do not divide in the same way. Also, the pattern of cell division that transforms eukaryotic stem cells into gametes (sperm cells in males or egg cells in females), termed meiosis, is different from that of the division of somatic cells in the body.

Degradation

[edit]

Multicellular organisms replace worn-out cells through cell division. In some animals, however, cell division eventually halts. In humans this occurs, on average, after 52 divisions, known as the Hayflick limit. The cell is then referred to as senescent. With each division the cells telomeres, protective sequences of DNA on the end of a chromosome that prevent degradation of the chromosomal DNA, shorten. This shortening has been correlated to negative effects such as age related diseases and shortened lifespans in humans.[24][25] Cancer cells, on the other hand, are not thought to degrade in this way, if at all. An enzyme complex called telomerase, present in large quantities in cancerous cells, rebuilds the telomeres through synthesis of telomeric DNA repeats, allowing division to continue indefinitely.[26]

History

[edit]
Kurt Michel with his phase contrast microscope

A cell division under microscope was first discovered by German botanist Hugo von Mohl in 1835 as he worked over the green alga Cladophoraglomerata.[27]

In 1943, cell division was filmed for the first time[28] by Kurt Michel using a phase-contrast microscope.[29]

See also

[edit]


References

[edit]
  1. ^ A dictionary of biology. Martin, E. A. (Elizabeth A.), Hine, Robert., Oxford University Press. (6th ed ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. 2008. ISBN 978-0-19-920462-5. OCLC 176818780. {{cite book}}: |edition= has extra text (help)CS1 maint: others (link)
  2. ^ Introduction to genetic analysis. Griffiths, Anthony J. F. (10th ed ed.). New York: W.H. Freeman and Co. 2012. ISBN 978-1-4292-2943-2. OCLC 698085201. {{cite book}}: |edition= has extra text (help)CS1 maint: others (link)
  3. ^ Kallio, Marko; Eriksson, John E.; Gorbsky, Gary J. (2000-09). "Differences in Spindle Association of the Mitotic Checkpoint Protein Mad2 in Mammalian Spermatogenesis and Oogenesis". Developmental Biology. 225 (1): 112–123. doi:10.1006/dbio.2000.9818. ISSN 0012-1606. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  4. ^ Kallio, Marko; Eriksson, John E.; Gorbsky, Gary J. (2000-09). "Differences in Spindle Association of the Mitotic Checkpoint Protein Mad2 in Mammalian Spermatogenesis and Oogenesis". Developmental Biology. 225 (1): 112–123. doi:10.1006/dbio.2000.9818. ISSN 0012-1606. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  5. ^ Marieb, Elaine Nicpon, 1936- (2000). Essentials of human anatomy and physiology (6th ed ed.). San Francisco: Benjamin Cummings. ISBN 0-8053-4940-5. OCLC 41266267. {{cite book}}: |edition= has extra text (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  6. ^ Pardee AB (November 1989). "G1 events and regulation of cell proliferation". Science. 246 (4930): 603–8. doi:10.1126/science.2683075. PMID 2683075.
  7. ^ Morgan, David Owen, 1958- (2007). The cell cycle : principles of control. London: New Science Press. ISBN 978-0-19-920610-0. OCLC 70173205.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  8. ^ Lindqvist A, van Zon W, Karlsson Rosenthal C, Wolthuis RM (May 2007). "Cyclin B1-Cdk1 activation continues after centrosome separation to control mitotic progression". PLoS Biology. 5 (5): e123. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.0050123. PMC 1858714. PMID 17472438.
  9. ^ Paulovich AG, Toczyski DP, Hartwell LH (February 1997). "When checkpoints fail". Cell. 88 (3): 315–21. doi:10.1016/S0092-8674(00)81870-X. PMID 9039258.
  10. ^ Schermelleh L, Carlton PM, Haase S, Shao L, Winoto L, Kner P, Burke B, Cardoso MC, Agard DA, Gustafsson MG, Leonhardt H, Sedat JW (June 2008). "Subdiffraction multicolour imaging of the nuclear periphery with 3D structured illumination microscopy". Science. 320 (5881): 1332–6. Bibcode:2008Sci...320.1332S. doi:10.1126/science.1156947. PMC 2916659. PMID 18535242.
  11. ^ B., G.; Griffiths, Anthony J. F.; Miller, Jeffrey H.; Suzuki, David T.; Lewontin, Richard C.; Gelbart, William M. (1999-11). "Introduction a l'analyse genetique". Population (French Edition). 54 (6): 1044. doi:10.2307/1534725. ISSN 0032-4663. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  12. ^ Keeney S (2001). Mechanism and control of meiotic recombination initiation. Current Topics in Developmental Biology. 52. Elsevier. pp. 1–53. doi:10.1016/s0070-2153(01)52008-6. ISBN 9780121531522.
  13. ^ "prometaphase | Learn Science at Scitable". www.nature.com. Retrieved 2019-11-25.
  14. ^ Carnell, D. (1996-04-13). "Researchers shed light on rotavirus". BMJ. 312 (7036): 927–927. doi:10.1136/bmj.312.7036.927a. ISSN 0959-8138.
  15. ^ Alberts, Bruce; Johnson, Alexander; Lewis, Julian; Raff, Martin; Roberts, Keith; Walter, Peter (2007-12-31). "Molecular Biology of the Cell". doi:10.1201/9780203833445. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  16. ^ Elrod, Susan L. (2010). Schaum's outlines : genetics. Elrod, Susan L. (5th ed ed.). New York: Mcgraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-162503-6. OCLC 473440643. {{cite book}}: |edition= has extra text (help)
  17. ^ Brooker AS, Berkowitz KM (2014). "The roles of cohesins in mitosis, meiosis, and human health and disease". Methods in Molecular Biology. New York: Springer. 1170: 229–66. doi:10.1007/978-1-4939-0888-2_11. ISBN 9781493908875. PMC 4495907. PMID 24906316.
  18. ^ "The Cell Cycle". www.biology-pages.info. Retrieved 2019-04-14.
  19. ^ "Campbell Biology in Focus . By Lisa A. Urry, Michael L. Cain, Steven A. Wasserman, Peter V. Minorsky, Robert B. Jackson, and Jane B. Reece. Boston (Massachusetts): Pearson. $146.67. xxxix + 905 p.; ill. + A-1 - A-34; B-1; C-1; D-1; E-1 - E-2; F-1 - F-3; CR-1 - CR-6; G-1 - G-34; I-1 - I-48 (index)". The Quarterly Review of Biology. 88 (3): 242. 2014. doi:10.1086/671541. ISBN 978-0-321-81380-0.
  20. ^ Dekker J (2014-11-25). "Two ways to fold the genome during the cell cycle: insights obtained with chromosome conformation capture". Epigenetics & Chromatin. 7 (1): 25. doi:10.1186/1756-8935-7-25. PMC 4247682. PMID 25435919.
  21. ^ Hetzer MW (March 2010). "The nuclear envelope". Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Biology. 2 (3): a000539. doi:10.1101/cshperspect.a000539. PMC 2829960. PMID 20300205.
  22. ^ Gilbert SF (2000). "Oogenesis". Developmental Biology (6th ed.).
  23. ^ Guertin, David A.; Trautmann, Susanne; McCollum, Dannel (2002-06-01). "Cytokinesis in Eukaryotes". Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews. 66 (2): 155–178. doi:10.1128/MMBR.66.2.155-178.2002. ISSN 1092-2172. PMID 12040122.
  24. ^ Jiang H, Schiffer E, Song Z, Wang J, Zürbig P, Thedieck K, Moes S, Bantel H, Saal N, Jantos J, Brecht M, Jenö P, Hall MN, Hager K, Manns MP, Hecker H, Ganser A, Döhner K, Bartke A, Meissner C, Mischak H, Ju Z, Rudolph KL (August 2008). "Proteins induced by telomere dysfunction and DNA damage represent biomarkers of human aging and disease". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 105 (32): 11299–304. Bibcode:2008PNAS..10511299J. doi:10.1073/pnas.0801457105. PMC 2516278. PMID 18695223.
  25. ^ Cawthon RM, Smith KR, O'Brien E, Sivatchenko A, Kerber RA (February 2003). "Association between telomere length in blood and mortality in people aged 60 years or older". Lancet. 361 (9355): 393–5. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(03)12384-7. PMID 12573379.
  26. ^ Jafri MA, Ansari SA, Alqahtani MH, Shay JW (June 2016). "Roles of telomeres and telomerase in cancer, and advances in telomerase-targeted therapies". Genome Medicine. 8 (1): 69. doi:10.1186/s13073-016-0324-x. PMC 4915101. PMID 27323951.
  27. ^ "Deutsche Biographie". www.deutsche-biographie.de. Retrieved 2019-11-25.
  28. ^ Masters BR (2008-12-15). "History of the Optical Microscope in Cell Biology and Medicine". Encyclopedia of Life Sciences. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. doi:10.1002/9780470015902.a0003082. ISBN 978-0470016176.
  29. ^ ZEISS Microscopy (2013-06-01), Historic time lapse movie by Dr. Kurt Michel, Carl Zeiss Jena (ca. 1943), retrieved 2019-04-15
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Cmboge2016/sandbox&oldid=927867138"