User:Austronesier/sandbox

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X′This user is a linguist, but dislikes Generative grammar as much as Noam Chomsky dislikes Capitalism.

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Bookmarks

• A Sociolinguistic History of Scotland
• Crossing Multiple Borders: “The Manyema” in Colonial East Central Africa
• The Secondary Products Revolution, Horse-Riding, and Mounted Warfare
• An Archaeology of Bronze Age Eurasia

Tamil medial obstruents

Tamil medial obstruents

Place	current version	Keane (2004)	Schiffmann (1999)	Kuno (1958)
Velar	x~g	ɣ	h	x
Palatal	s	s	s	s
Retroflex	ɖ~ɽ	ɖ	ɖ	ɖ
Alveolar	r	ɾ	r	r
Dental	d̪~ð	ð	ð	ð
Labial	b~β	ʋ	b~w~(v)	β

Uyghur vowels

Uyghur has the following inventory of vowel phonemes:

	unrounded		rounded
	front	back	front	back
Close	/i/ [ɪ]		/ü/ [ʏ]	/u/ [ʊ]
Mid	/e/ [e]		/ö/ [ø]	/o/ [o]
Open	/ä/ [ɛ]	/a/ [ʌ]

The phonetic values given here are the default realizations, with a wide range of allophones (including tense and whispered variants) for each phoneme.

	unrounded		rounded
	front	back	front	back
Close	|i|	|ï|	|ü|	|u|
Mid	(|e|)	(|ɤ|)	|ö|	|o|
Open	|ä|	|a|

The close unrounded morphophonemes |i| and |ï| are both represented by the phoneme /i/, and only are distinguished by the way they trigger vowel harmony: roots with |i| take suffixes with /ä/ and /ü/, while roots with |ï| take suffixes with /a/ and /u/.

Other stuff

Carol Henriksen; Johan van der Auwera (1994). Ekkehard König; Johan van der Auwera (eds.). The Germanic Languages. London: Routledge. pp. 1–18.

• The modest beginnings of this evolution seem to be found in the southern Baltic region (northern Germany, the Danish Isles, southern Scandinavia), which according to accepted opinion had been settled by speakers of Indo-European around 1000 BC. They encountered speakers of non-Indo-European origin, gradually changed their Proto-Indo-European into Proto-Germanic, and dispersed beyond the original homeland to occupy the region from the North Sea stretching to the River Vistula in Poland by 500 BC.

Fortson (2004:300)

• Archaeological and linguistic evidence suggests that speakers of Common Germanic lived in northern Europe in the first half of the first millennium BC, primarily in southern Scandinavia and along the coasts of the North and Baltic seas, in an area stretching from the Netherlands in the West to the Vistula River in the east, in what is now Poland.

The notion of Graeco-Armenian as a subgroup of Indo-European is not widely accepted.

Some argue that Greek and Armenian may be linked together in a wider group that also includes the Indo-Iranian languages.

Kim (2018) considers the evidence for a Graeco-Armenian connection as insufficient, and explains the common features as a result of contact; the same also holds for morphological features shared by Armenian with Balto-Slavic and Indo-Iranian.

Phonological history of Danish

Old East Nordic

Vowel system of Old East Nordic.

long					short
	front		back		front		central	back
	unrounded	rounded			unrounded	rounded
high	i:	y:	u:		i	y		u
mid	e:	ø:	o:		e	ø		o
low	ɛ:		ɔ:				a

• Rounding:

/a:/ > /ɔ:/ (Late Common Norse)

• Monophthongization:

/ai/ > /e:/

/au/, /øy/ > /ø:/

• Merger of short /ɛ/ and /ɔ/ (umlauted short a) with /e/ and /o/~/ø/:

/bɔrn/ > /børn/

Changes in Medieval Danish

• Reduction of vowels in the ultimate to /ə/ (first spelled ⟨æ⟩, then ⟨e⟩) (c. 1100–1200):
• Lengthening of consonants after short vowels (only /m/, and stops before /j/) (c. 1100–1200):

/koma/ > /kommə/, /sɛtja/ > /sɛttjə/

• Lenition of medial voiceless stops (c. 1200):

/mata/ > /ma:ðə/, /baka/ > /ba:ɣə/

• Vowel lengthening in open syllables (c. 1250):

/mata/ > /ma:ðə/

• Shortening of long consonants (c. 1300):

/θakka/ > /takə/

• Lowering of short vowels (c. 1400):

/finna/ > /fenə/, /lifa/ > /le:və/, /opinn/ > /ɔ:bən/

• Merger of /θ/ with /t/ (c. 1400):

/θakka/ > /takə/.

In some frequently used words like pronouns and adverbs, the reflex is /d/:

/θem/ > /dem/

Conservative Modern Danish

Jespersen's Modersmålets Fonetik (1906) describes conservative Standard Danish as it was spoken at the beginning of the 20th century.

Vowels

Vowels:

• Unrounded front vowels: ⟨i(ˑ)⟩, ⟨e(ˑ)⟩, ⟨æ(ˑ)⟩ (= [ɛ(:)]), ⟨æ⟩ (= [æ]), only next to ⟨r⟩).
• Rounded front vowels: ⟨y(ˑ)⟩, ⟨ø(ˑ)⟩, ⟨ö(ˑ)⟩ (= [œ(:)]), ⟨ö⟩ (= [ɶ], only next to ⟨r⟩).
• Rounded back vowels: ⟨u(ˑ)⟩, ⟨o(ˑ)⟩, ⟨åˑ⟩ (= [ɔ:]), ⟨å⟩ (= [ʌ]).
• Central vowel: ⟨ə⟩
• Three A-vowels:
  • ⟨aˑ ~ æˑ⟩ front and slightly closed, for some speakers with the same qualitity as ⟨æ⟩.
  • ⟨a(ˑ)⟩ central open, the long vowel appears in R-environments.
  • ⟨ɑ⟩ back open, in R-environments.

For the mid vowels ⟨e(ˑ)⟩, ⟨æ(ˑ)⟩, and ⟨o(ˑ)⟩, Jespersen notes a slight difference between the short and long variants. For the open-mid back vowel, he records a notable distance, and uses different symbols for the two sounds: ⟨åˑ⟩, ⟨å⟩.

long						short
	front		central	back		front		central	back
	unrounded	rounded				unrounded	rounded
high	i:	y:		u:		i	y		u
mid-high	e:	ø:		o:		e	ø		o
mid-low	ɛ:	œ:		ɔ:		ɛ	œ	ə
near-low	a:					(æ)	(ɶ)		ʌ
low			(ä:)					ä	(ɑ)

The vowels [æ], [ɶ], [ɑ] and [ä:] only occur as variants of /ɛ/, /œ/, /a/ and /a:/, when preceded or followed by /r/.

Consonants

One of the main differences with current Standard Danish is the occurrence of the velar fricative ⟨q⟩ (/ɣ/) which was realized as [ɣ]~[ʝ] between vowels, and as [x]~[ç] before consonants, e.g. bage [ba:ɣə], bagde [baxd̥ə].

Syllable-closing /r/ can either be realized as a voiceless [ʁ̥], or as "vocalized" [ɐ̯] (written ⟨ɹ⟩).

Developments in the 20th and 21st century

Loss of of the velar fricative /ɣ/

In the turn of the 20th century, /ɣ/ disappeared from the common standard language, and shifted to /w/, /j/ or zero in most positions, or to /g/ before the suffixes /-də/ and /-d/:

• bage /ba:ɣə/ > /ba:jə/ [bɛ:jə]
• bagde /baɣdə/ > /bagdə/ [baɡ̊d̥ə]

Vowel lowering following /r/

All non-high front vowels are subject to lowering following /r/ ([ʁ]).

	default	after /r/
/e/	[e̝]	[ɛ̝]
/ɛ/	[e]	[a]
/a/	[a̝]	[ɑ̈]
/ø/	[ø]	[œ̝]
/œ/	[œ̝]	[œ̞]

The downward push led to a few phonemic mergers:

• Long /e:/ and /ɛ:/ merged into [ɛ̝:] in the second half of the 20th century, unless followed by /ð/. In the latter case, only /e:/ acquired the default value [ɛ̝:], while /ɛ:/ opened to [æ:] at an intermediate stage, and finally merged with /ɑ:/.

		G's parents	Grønnum	Younger gen.
|reː|	default	[ʁe:] (/re:/)	[ʁɛ̝:] (/rɛ:/)	[ʁɛ̝:] (/rɛ:/)
	before |d|
|rɛː|	default	[ʁɛ̝:] (/rɛ:/)
	before |d|		[ʁɛ̝: ~ ʁæ:] (/rɛ: ~ ra:/)	[ʁɑ̈:] (/rɑ:/)

• Short /ɛ/ merged with /a/ into [ɑ̈] unless followed by dorsal consonant (late 20th century):

ret /rɛt/ [ʁad̥] > [ʁɑ̈d̥] (thus identical to rat /rat/ [ʁɑ̈d̥]), but: trække /trɛgə/ [tˢʁ̥aɡ̊ə]

In the second half of the 20th century, lowering further started to extend to /u(:)/ being pronounced as [o(:)] and thus merging with /o(:)/. This merger is however still unstable.

Bibliography

• Basbøll, Hans (2005). The Phonology of Danish. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-203-97876-5.
• Brink, Lars (2013). "Nyere danske lydlove" (PDF). Mål og Mæle. 36 (1): 24–30.
• Brink, Lars (2016). "Nyere danske lydlove 2" (PDF). Mål og Mæle. 37 (2): 5–11.
• Ejstrup, Michael (2010). "Vokaler i moderne danske talesprog" (PDF). Rask (32): 103–128.
• Faarlund, Jan Terje (1994). "Old and Middle Scandinavian". In König, Ekkehard; van der Auwera, Johan (eds.). The Germanic Languages. London: Routledge. pp. 36–71.
• Grønnum, Nina (2005). Fonetik og fonologi, Almen og Dansk (3rd ed.). Copenhagen: Akademisk Forlag. ISBN 87-500-3865-6.
• Harbert, Wayne (2007). The Germanic Languages. Cambridge Language Surveys. Cambridge University Press.
• Jespersen, Otto (1906). Modersmålets Fonetik. København: Det Schubotheske Forlag.
• Karker, Allan (2005). "Phonological development of Old Nordic to Early Modern Nordic II: Danish". In Bandle, Oskar; Braunmüller, Kurt; Jahr, Ernst Håkon; Karker, Allan; Naumann, Hans-Peter; Teleman, Ulf (eds.). The Nordic Languages: An International Handbook of the History of the North Germanic Languages, Vol. 2. Handbücher zur Sprach- und Kommunikationswissenschaft 22.2. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter. pp. 1097–1101.
• Riad, Tomas (2000). "The Origin of Danish Stød". In Lahiri, Aditi (ed.). Analogy, Levelling and Markedness: Principles of Change in Phonology and Morphology. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. pp. 261–300.
• Riad, Tomas (2002). "The phonological systems of Old Nordic II: Old Swedish and Old Danish". In Bandle, Oskar; Braunmüller, Kurt; Jahr, Ernst Håkon; Karker, Allan; Naumann, Hans-Peter; Teleman, Ulf (eds.). The Nordic Languages: An International Handbook of the History of the North Germanic Languages, Vol. 1. Handbücher zur Sprach- und Kommunikationswissenschaft 22.1. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter. pp. 896–910.
• Rischel, Jørgen (2012). "Danish". Revue belge de philologie et d'histoire. 90 (3): 809–832. doi:10.3406/rbph.2012.8263.
• Sandøy, Helge (2005). "The typological development of Nordic languages I: Phonology". In Bandle, Oskar; Braunmüller, Kurt; Jahr, Ernst Håkon; Karker, Allan; Naumann, Hans-Peter; Teleman, Ulf (eds.). The Nordic Languages: An International Handbook of the History of the North Germanic Languages, Vol. 2. Handbücher zur Sprach- und Kommunikationswissenschaft 22.2. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter. pp. 1852–1871.

Muna grammar

Free pronouns and possessive suffixes

	free	possesive
1.sg.	inodi/idi	-ku
2.sg.fam.	(i)hintu	-mu
2.sg.hon.	intaidi	-nto
3.sg.	anoa	-no
1.du.incl.	intaidi	-nto
1.pl.incl.	intaidiimu	-ntoomu
1.pl.excl.	insaidi	-mani
2.pl.fam.	(i)hintuumu	-Vmu
2.pl.hon.	intaidiimu	-ntoomu
3.pl.	andoa	-ndo