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Impostor phenomenon

Not to be confused with Capgras delusion, in which a person believes that a loved one has been replaced by an impostor.

Impostor phenomenon (also known as IP, impostorism, impostor syndrome, or the impostor experience) is a psychological pattern in which an individual doubts their accomplishments, and have a persistent internalized fear of being exposed as a "fraud". Despite external recognition, those experiencing this phenomenon remain convinced that they are frauds, and do not deserve all they have achieved. Individuals with Impostorism attribute their success to luck, or as a result of deceiving others into thinking they are more intelligent than they perceive themselves to be. While early research focused on the prevalence among high-achieving women, impostor syndrome has been recognized to affect both men and women, equally. Imposter phenomenon is not a mental disorder, yet there is research describing various management styles for this internal experience.

History

The term Impostor Phenomenon (IP) was introduced in the article, The Impostor Phenomenon in High Achieving Women: Dynamics and Therapeutic Intervention (1978) by Dr. Pauline R. Clance and Dr. Suzanne A. Imes. Clance and Imes defined impostor phenomenon (IP) as an individual experience of self-perceived intellectual phoniness (fraud). The researchers investigated the prevalence of this internal experience by interviewing a sample of 150 high-achieving women. All of the participants had been formally recognized for their professional excellence by colleagues, and academic achievements by degrees earned, and top ranking scores on standardized testing. Despite the consistent evidence of external validation, these women lacked the internal acknowledgement of their accomplishments. The participants explained how their success was a result of luck, and others simply overestimating their intelligence and abilities. Clance and Imes believed that this mental framework for imposter phenomenon developed from factors such as: gender stereotypes, early family dynamics, culture, and attribution style. The researchers determined that the women who experienced imposter phenomenon showcased symptoms related to depression, generalized anxiety, and low self-confidence.

Clance and Imes stated in their 1978 article that imposter phenomenon was less prevalent in men. The researchers made the conclusion based off of their clinical experience. It was noted that further research was necessary to determine the effects IP has on men. Following the publication in 1978, more research has determined that this experience does exist in demographics outside of just high-achieving, successful women.

Prevalence

In more current research, Imposter phenomenon (IP) is studied as a reaction to particular stimuli and events. IP is a phenomenon, or an experience that occurs in an individual, not a mental disorder. A mental disorder can be defined as a condition that impacts an individual's mood, behavior, feelings, and thoughts. In order for a medical professional to diagnose an individual with a mental disorder, they have to follow the diagnostic criterial outlined in the DSM (the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual or Mental Disorders. Impostor phenomenon is not recognized in the DSM. Yet, studies have shown that individuals who experience this phenomenon have often been diagnosed with a mental disorder(s) as well. Examples of these mental disorders include, depression and anxiety. If an individual is significantly impacted by this experience, it is recommended that seek help from a medical professional. It is unclear of the immediate relationship between these common disorders, and IP. Further research is necessary to determine this relation.

Signs and symptoms

The first signs and symptoms of Impostor phenomenon (IP) are unclear. With the close relationship between IP and mental disorders such as depression and anxiety, researchers focus on the individual's behavior in determining the presence, and extent of the IP experience. Impostor phenomenon is often referred to as, Impostorism.

Measuring impostor phenomenon

The first scale designated to measure characteristics of imposter phenomenon (IP) was designed by Dr. Clance in 1985, called the Clance Impostor Phenomenon Scale (CIP). The scale can be utilized to determine if characteristics of fear and present, and to what extent. The aspects of fear include: fear of evaluation, fear of not continuing success and fear of not being as capable as others.

In her 1985 paper, Dr. Clance explained that Imposter Phenomenon (IP) can be distinguished by the following six dimensions:

1. The Imposter Cycle
2. The need to be: Special/The Best
3. Characteristics of Superman/Superwoman
4. Fear of failure
5. Denial of ability and praise
6. Feelings unworthy of success

Clance noted that the characteristics of these six dimensions may vary. By this model, for an individual to be considered to experience IP, at least two of these aspects have to be present. Dr. Clance theorised that the most important aspect to understand the manifestation of this experience can be seen through the Impostor Cycle she created.

The impostor cycle

The following titles below have been italicised to indicate the specific terms Clance illustrated in her Imposter Cycle Model.

The Cycle first begins with an Achievement-related Task. An example of an achievement-related task could be an exercise that was assigned through work or school. Once the assignment has been given to the individual, feelings of Anxiety, Self-doubt, and Worry immediately follow. The cycle accounts for two possible reactions that stem from these feelings. Either the individual will respond by Over-preparation or Procrastination. If the individual responds with Procrastination, this initial response will turn into a frantic effort to complete the job. Once the task has been completed, there will be a brief period of Accomplishment and Feeling of Relief. If Positive Feedback is given once the work has been completed and turned in, the individual will Discount Positive Feedback. If the individual responded to the task with Over-preparation, the successful outcome will be seen as a result of hard work. If the individual response by Procrastination, they will view the outcome as a matter of luck. In the Impostor Cycle, gaining success through hard work, or luck is not interpreted as a matter of true, personal ability. This means, that it does not matter which mechanism the individual used to complete the task. Even if the outcome results in a positive response, the feedback given has no effect on the individual's perception of personal success. This leads to the individual to Discount Positive Feedback. This sequence of events serves as a reinforcement, causing the cycle to remain in motion. With every cycle, feelings of Perceived Fraudulence, Increased Self Doubt, Depression, and Anxiety accumulate. As the cycle continues, increased success leads to the intensification of feeling like a fraud. This experience causes the individual to remain haunted by their lack of perceived, personal ability. Believing that at any point they can be 'exposed' for who they think they really keeps the cycle in motion.

Gender studies

Studies on Impostor phenomenon have received mixed reviews regarding the presence of IP in men and women. Dr. Pauline R. Clance and Dr. Suzanne A. Imes investigated this experience in high achieving in their 1978 study. Following the publication of this study, researchers have investigated Impostorism (IP) in both men and women. Clance and Imes suggested that this experience manifests in women more so than men. A study in 2006 looked at gender differences when explored the potential relationship between the feeling of being an impostor, and the achievement of goals. The researchers concluded that the women who participated in this study experienced impostor phenomenon more so than the men who participated. Other research has shown that women commonly face IP in regards to performance. The perception of ability and power is showcased in out-performing others. For men, Impostorism is often driven by the fear of being unsuccessful, or not good enough. Despite these differences, there is a greater amount of literature regarding IP and gender differences, stating that IP is spread equally among men and women.

Occurrence

The feeling of being a fraud that is emphasised in the impostor phenomenon (IP) is not uncommon. It has been estimated that nearly 70 percent of individuals will hold signs and symptoms of IP at least once in their life. This can be a result of a new setting, academic or professional. Research shows that impostor phenomenon is not uncommon for students when entering a new academic environment. Feelings of insecurity can come as a result to an unknown, new environment. This can lead to lower confidence in yourself, and your abilities.

Settings

Impostorism can occur in other in various settings. Some examples include:

• A new environment
• Academic settings
• In the work place
• Social interactions
• Relationships (platonic or romantic)

In relationships, individuals with Impostorism (IP) often feel like they do not live up to the expectations of their friends or loved ones. It is common for the individual with IP to think that they must have some how tricked others into liking, and wanting to spend time with them. Feelings of being unworthy, or deserving of the beneficial relationships they possess.

There is empirical evidence that demonstrates the harmful effects of imposter phenomenon in students. Studies have shown that when a student's academic self-concept increase- the symptoms of imposter phenomenon decrease, and vice versa. The worry and emotions the students held, had a direct impact of their performance in the program.

Common ideas of Impostor phenomenon in the classroom include:

• Students compared themselves to their fellow classmates
• Students do not feeling prepared academically when they compared themselves to their classmates
• Students often questioned the grounds to which their were accepted into the program
• Perceives positive recognition, awards, and good grades stems from external factors. Not from personal ability or intelligence.

Researchers from The University of Texas at Austin investigated the impact imposter phenomenon has on students, specifically students of color. They found that the feelings the students had of being a fraud resulted in psychological distress. Students of color often questioned the grounds in which they were accepted into the program. They held the false assumption that they only received their acceptance due to affirmative action- rather than their extraordinary application, and qualities they had to offer.

Connections

Research has shown a that there is a relationship between Impostor phenomenon (IP) and the following aspects:

• Family expectations
• Overprotective parent(s) or legal gardian(s)
• Graduate-level coursework
• Racial identities
• Attribution style
• Anxiety
• Depression
• Lower trait self-esteem
• Being a protectionist
• Excessive self-monitoring, with an emphasis on self-worth

The aspects listed are not mutually exclusive. These components are often found to correlate among individuals with IP. It is incorrect to infer that the correlational relationship between these aspects cause the impostor experience. Correlation does not imply causation.

For individuals with Impostorism, feelings of guilt often result in a fear of success. The following are examples of common ideas, and statements that lead to feelings of guilt, and reinforce IP .

• The good education they were able to receive
• Being acknowledged by others for life success
• Belief that it is not right or fare to be in a better situation than a friend or loved one

Being referred to as:

• "The smart one."
• "The talented one."
• "The responsible one."
• "The sensitive one."
• "The good one."
• "Our favorite."

Kept from old paper: {In a 2016 interview, Caroline Webb suggested that feelings of impostor experience are potentially healthy and beneficial for one's career trajectory. This conclusion stems from understanding that everyone has a comfort zone, and personal/professional growth is likely to occur when people step out of their comfort zones.}

Management

In their 1978 paper, Clance and Imes proposed a therapeutic approach they used for their participants/clients with Impostorism. This technique encompasses a group setting where various individuals meet others who are also living with this experience. The researches explained in their 1978 paper how the group meetings made a significant impact on their participants. They proposed that it was the realization that they were not they only ones who experienced these feelings. The participants were required to complete various homework assignments as well. One assignment consisted of the participants recalling all of the people hey believe they have fooled, or tricked in the past. Another take home task was to have the individuals write down the positive feedback they would receive. Later, they would have to recall why they received this feedback, and what about it made them perceive it in a negative light. In the group sessions, the researchers also had the participants reframe common thoughts and ideas about performance. An example would be to change:

"I might fail this exam." to "I will do well on this exam."

The researches concluded that simply extracting the self-doubt before an event occurs, helps eliminate the feelings of Impostorism. It was recommended that the individuals struggling with this experience seek support from friends and family. Although Impostor phenomenon is not a mental condition, it can still effect an individual in a tremendous way. Other research on therapeutic approaches for Impostorism emphasis the importance of self-worth. Individuals live with IP commonly relate self-esteem and self- worth to others. A major aspect of other therapeutic approaches for IP focus on separating the two into completely separate entities. In a 2000 paper, Arnkoff stated that Cognitive Therapy is the best approach when helping individuals with IP.

"Cognitive therapy includes comparing expectations with likely outcomes, and disputing the imposter’s irrational beliefs about intelligence, mistakes, failure, and inadequacy."(Royse Roskowki 2010).

In a study in 2013, researcher Queena Hoang proposed that intrinsic motivation can decrease the feelings of being a fraud, that result from Impostor phenomenon. This includes a serious of re-framing current ideas. The following are examples listing within Hoang's 2013 paper:

• "I want to receive that degree. I won't give up and have too much pride to walk away."
• "If I can do this, I will be able to help others in the future and work with people as motivated as I am,"
• "Im can be the voice of other People of Color who do not have the opportunities like I do."
• "I know I can do this."
• Learn how to 'be your own person'
• Learning how to accept and believe compliments

Hoang also suggested that implementing a mentor program for new or entering students will minimize students' feelings of self-doubt. Having a mentor that has been in the program will help the new students feel supported. This allows for a much smoother, and less overwhelming transition.

kept from old paper: {Writing therapy allows the person to organize their thoughts in writing. The written record of the person's objective accomplishments can enable the person to associate those accomplishments with reality, rather than simply dismissing the accomplishments internally. The written record can also remind the person of those accomplishments later. By these methods, writing therapy may alleviate the person's sense of inadequacy.}

Society and culture

Various individuals who are often seen in the spotlight have shared that they have/had experienced liking like a fraud. Journalist Diana Crow stated,

"I spent a lot of time not applying to awards for a couple of years."

When she did receive some of those awards, it reinforced the feelings of Impostorism. She stated,

"There’s a little bit of wondering whether what won an award is actually award-worthy."

The following list includes other well known individuals who have reportedly experienced this phenomenon as well:

• Multiple-award-winning writer Maya Angelou
• Actress Emma Watson
• Academy Award-winning actor Tom Hanks
• Actress Michelle Pfeiffer
• Screenwriter Chuck Lorre
• Best-selling writer Neil Gaiman
• Best-selling writer John Green
• Comedian Tommy Cooper
• Business leader Sheryl Sandberg
• US Supreme Court Justice Sonia Sotomayor
• Entrepreneur Mike Cannon-Brookes.

Further reading

• Explanatory style: "Is a psychological attribute that indicates how people explain to themselves why they experience a particular event, either positive or negative."
• Dunning–Kruger effect: "Is a cognitive bias in which people of low ability have illusory superiority and mistakenly assess their cognitive ability as greater than it is."
• Mindset: "Is a set of assumptions, methods, or notations held by one or more people or groups of people."
• Illusory superiority: "Is a condition of cognitive bias whereby a person overestimates that person's own qualities and abilities, in relation to the same qualities and abilities of other persons."
• Impostor: "Is a person who pretends to be somebody else, often through means of disguise."
• Inner critic: "Or 'critical inner voice' is a concept used in popular psychology and psychotherapy to refer to a subpersonality that judges and demeans a person."
• Phenomenon: "Is any thing which manifests itself."
• Jonah complex: "Is the fear of success which prevents self-actualization, or the realization of one's potential."
• Poseur: "Is someone who "poses for effect, or behaves affectedly", who "affects a particular attitude, character or manner to impress others", or who pretends to belong to a particular group."
• Self-concept: "Is a collection of beliefs about oneself."
• Self-handicapping: "Is a cognitive strategy by which people avoid effort in the hopes of keeping potential failure from hurting self-esteem."
• Setting up to fail: "Is a phrase denoting a no-win situation designed in such a way that the person in the situation cannot succeed at the task which they have been assigned."
• Syndrome: "Is a set of medical signs and symptoms that are correlated with each other and, often, with a particular disease or disorder."
• Tall poppy syndrome: "Describes aspects of a culture where people of high status are resented, attacked, cut down or criticised because they have been classified as superior to their peers."

References

Clance, P. R., & Imes, S. A. (1978)."The imposter phenomenon in high achieving women: Dynamics and therapeutic intervention." Psychotherapy: Theory, Research & Practice,15(3), 241-247. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/h0086006

Hoang, Queen (January 2013)."The Imposter Phenomenon: Overcoming Internalized Barriers and Recognizing Achievements." The Vermont Connection. Vol. #34, Article 6.

Kumar, S., & Jagacinski, C. M. (2006). Imposters have goals too: The imposter phenomenon and its relationship to achievement goal theory. Personality and Individual Differences, 40(1), 147-157.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2005.05.014

Langford, Joe. and Clance, Pauline R.(1993). “The Imposter Phenomenon: Recent research findings regarding dynamics, personality and family patterns and their implications for treatment.” Psychotherapy. Volume 30/Fall1993/Number 3.

Neureiter, M. and Traut-Mattausch, E.(2016).“Inspecting the Dangers of Feeling like a Fake: An Empirical Investigation of the Imposter Phenomenon in the World of Work.” Frontiers.

O'Brien McElwee, R & Yurak, Tricia.(2010)."The phenomenology of the impostor phenomenon." Individual Differences Research. 8. 184-197.

Sakulku, J. and Alexander, J. (2011)."The Impostor Phenomenon". International Journal of Behavioral Science. Vol. 6, No. 1, 73-92.

Weir, Kristen.(2013).“Feel like a Fraud?” Monitor on Psychology, American Psychological Association.

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end of draft.

Notes: editing article

Sources(Collected thus far):

1. Clance, P. R., & Imes, S. A. (1978). "The imposter phenomenon in high achieving women: Dynamics and therapeutic intervention." Psychotherapy: Theory, Research & Practice, 15(3), 241-247. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/h0086006 (citation #1-look to edit exciting citation in article)
2. Hoang, Queen (January 2013). "The Imposter Phenomenon: Overcoming Internalised Barriers and Recognising Achievements." The Vermont Connection. Vol. #34, Article 6.
3. Sakulku, J. and Alexander, J. (2011). The Impostor Phenomenon. International Journal of Behavioral Science. Vol. 6, No. 1, 73-92.

http://www.apa.org/gradpsych/2013/11/fraud.aspx 2. https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01445/fullhttp://www.paulineroseclance.com/pdf/ip_high_achieving_women.pdf http://paulineroseclance.com/pdf/-Langford.pdfhttps://scholarworks.uvm.edu/tvc/vol34/iss1/6/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/288381712_The_phenomenology_of_the_impostor_phenomenon

Current agenda for editing/expanding the article:

Heading: 'Background' -Flip the paragraphs -Expand on repeated words -Go into more detail on the OG research -Create subheadings: "Original Research" and another one -Point out bias and lack of research from the beginning

Heading: 'Signs and symptoms' -Delete "can take different forms" - just say that "common signs of impostor experience are..." -Use different descriptor besides "some" and "many"

Heading:'Occurrence' -Retitle: 'Prevalence' -Delete subheading itself -Add more info. about psychological research being referenced (lack examples + citations) -Delete repeated info.

Subheading: 'Demographics' -Delete subheading -Include info in intro paragraph for overall section -Add more citations

Subheading: 'High Achievers' -Define "high achiever" with citation (use Imes and Clance's definition) -Include years in parenthetical citations -Reference research discussed earlier (in their 1978 study of x amount of "high-achieving" woman..., Imes and Clance theorized...) -Review Imes and Clance research to verify the suggested behaviors used as subheadings -Define everything (ex: "gifted") -Who is Young? (The "impostor" person may feel they need to work two or three times as hard, so over-prepare, tinker and obsess over details, says Young.) -Shift final paragraph to reference Clance's suggestion about prevalence among men then give examples of recent studies about men and imposter syndrome.

Subheading: 'Ethnicity' -Highlight what Imes and Clance (1978) did or did not have to say about ethnicity then introduce research specifically references the two -Be specific in discussing research and implications -Reframe description of UT Austin Study alongside other research examples

Heading: 'Benefits' -Evaluate how it adds to understanding of imposter syndrome

Subheading: 'Diagnosis' -Delete section. Not in DSM

Heading: 'Management' -Review contents and determine if certain information should be in a different section -Expand to be more robust with concrete statements -Reference the Diagnosis section in discussing management -Expand "Therapy" section with more details from references

Heading: 'See Also' -Consider how it integrate all information in this section into other parts of the article

Other possible headings: -Society and Culture -Move information about famous people with impostor syndrome here -Include any pop culture references here as well

-Future Research/Further Research/Research Considerations (if it applies) -Could connect with Further Reading section -Maybe include counter research that says it does not exist? -Again discuss bias and lack of research, etc.

[added these notes to the Imposter syndrom talk page]

Possible Articles to Edit/Expand

Imposter Syndrom Article

Notes to self:

Fix citation #6: Doesn't connect to anything 'Error'

Also citation #18 (same as 6)

"Sakulku, Jaruwan (2011). "The Impostor Phenomenon" (PDF). International Journal of Behavioral Science. 6 (1): 73–92. Retrieved April 25, 2017."

Citation #19 is same as #3

Citation #24 is a repeat of earlier citation (APA.org)

Currently in the process of developing more knowledge on the topic, and compiling sources to help me write the article.

I've also developed an interest in the article: Imposter Syndrome

I hope to add more content as far as the different therapy types for this syndrome,and how it relates to other thoughts and behaviors.

I was really interested in the article: Art therapy

There are a lot of categories, such as Schizophrenia and Autism that have little to no content. I would like to research more info on those topics and how Art therapy is used.

Article Evaluation

Observations and Learnings (Notes)

Looked at the Article: Self-concept

I realised how much I value links to other articles for further reading.

Everything seems very relevant. The picture on the right hand side is very helpful in describing the model of self-concept.

The article clearly stated that self-concept is separate from the concepts: self-awareness and self-esteem. This was a very good distinction to make and you can tell that the author did enough research to know that they are usually compared and confused.

I like the use of the contents- order/timeline, research on self concept in various fields.

Doesn't seem bias in anyway.

Talk page led me to the WikiProject Psychology page.

Kind of surprised about some of the feedback given on the talk page. The article was deemed important yet people in the talk comments thought otherwise. I guess i need more practice with this because i thought it was very clear and easy to comprehend.