User:سائغ/T4

Coordinates: 11°22.4′N 142°35.5′E / 11.3733°N 142.5917°E / 11.3733; 142.5917
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2020 – Fendouzhe[edit]

Fendouzhe (奋斗者, Striver) is a crewed Chinese deep-sea submersible developed by the China Ship Scientific Research Center (CSSRC). Between 10 October and 28 November 28, 2020, it carried out thirteen dives in the Mariana Trench as part of a test programme. Of these, eight led to depths of more than 10,000 m (32,808 ft). On 10 November 2020, the bottom of the Challenger Deep was reached by Fendouzhe with three Chinese scientists onboard whilst livestreaming the descent to a reported depth of 10,909 m (35,791 ft).[1][2] This makes the Fendouzhe the fourth crewed submersible vehicle achieving a successful descent. The pressure hull of Fendouzhe, made from a newly developed titanium alloy, offers space for three people in addition to technical equipment.[3] Fendouzhe is equipped with cameras made by the Norwegian manufacturer Imenco.[4] According to Ye Cong, the chief designer of the submersible, China's goals for the dive aren't just scientific investigation but also deep sea seabed resources.[5][6]

2021 – Ring of Fire 2 Expedition / DSV Limiting Factor[edit]

On 28 February 2021 Caladan Oceanic's "Ring of Fire 2" expedition arrived over the Challenger Deep and conducted crewed descents and lander deployments into the Challenger Deep.[7] At the start the (unmanned) ultra-deep-sea lander Skaff was deployed to collect water column data by CTD for the expedition. The effects of the Pacific subducting plate crashing into the Philippine Plate was amongst the things researched onsite. On 1 March 2021 the first crewed descent to the eastern pool was made by Victor Vescovo and Richard Garriott.[8] Garriott became the 17th person to descend to the bottom.[9][10] On 2 March 2021 a descent to the eastern pool was made by Victor Vescovo and Michael Dubno.[10][11] On 5 March a descent to the eastern pool was made by Victor Vescovo and Hamish Harding.[12] They traversed the bottom of Challenger Deep.[13][14] On 11 March 2021 a descent to the western pool was made by Victor Vescovo and marine botanist Nicole Yamase.[15] On 13 April 2021 a descent was made by deep water submersible operations expert Rob McCallum and Tim Macdonald who piloted the dive.[16][17][18] A 2021 descent with a Japanese citizen is planned.[19] All crewed descents were conducted in the Deep-Submergence Vehicle DSV Limiting Factor.

Unmanned descents by ROVs[edit]

1996 and 1998 – Kaikō[edit]

Main article: Kaikō

The remotely operated vehicle (ROV) Kaikō made many unmanned descents to the Mariana Trench from its support ship RV Yokosuka during two expeditions in 1996 and 1998.[20] From 29 February to 4 March the ROV Kaiko made three dives into the central basin, Kaiko #21 – Kaiko #23, . Depths ranged from 10,898 metres (35,755 ft) at 11°22.536′N 142°26.418′E / 11.375600°N 142.440300°E / 11.375600; 142.440300, to 10,896 metres (35,748 ft) at 11°22.59′N 142°25.848′E / 11.37650°N 142.430800°E / 11.37650; 142.430800; dives #22 & #23 to the north, and dive #21 northeast of the deepest waters of the central basin.[21] During the 1996 measurements the temperature (water temperature increases at great depth due to adiabatic compression), salinity and water pressure at the sampling station was 2.6 °C (36.7 °F), 34.7‰ and 1,113 bar (111.3 MPa; 16,140 psi), respectively at 10,897 m (35,751 ft) depth.[22] The Japanese robotic deep-sea probe Kaikō broke the depth record for unmanned probes when it reached close to the surveyed bottom of the Challenger Deep. Created by the Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and Technology (JAMSTEC), it was one of the few unmanned deep-sea probes in operation that could dive deeper than 6,000 metres (20,000 ft). The manometer measured depth of 10,911.4 m (35,799 ft) ±3 m (10 ft) at 11°22.39′N 142°35.54′E / 11.37317°N 142.59233°E / 11.37317; 142.59233 for the Challenger Deep is believed to be the most accurate measurement taken up to then.[23][24] Another source states the greatest depth measured by Kaikō in 1996 was 10,898 m (35,755 ft) at 11°22.10′N 142°25.85′E / 11.36833°N 142.43083°E / 11.36833; 142.43083 and in 1998 10,907 m (35,784 ft) at 11°22.95′N 142°12.42′E / 11.38250°N 142.20700°E / 11.38250; 142.20700.[24] The ROV Kaiko was the first vehicle to visit to the bottom of the Challenger Deep since the bathyscaph Trieste's dive in 1960, and the first success in sampling the trench bottom sediment/mud, from which Kaiko obtained over 360 samples.[25] Approximately 3000 different microbes were identified in the samples.[26][27][22] Kaikō was lost at sea off Shikoku Island during Typhoon Chan-Hom on 29 May 2003.

2009 – Nereus[edit]

HROV Nereus
Main article: Nereus (underwater vehicle)

From 2 May to 5 June 2009, the RV Kilo Moana hosted the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution (WHOI) hybrid remotely operated vehicle (HROV) Nereus team for the first operational test of the Nereus in its 3-ton tethered ROV mode. The Nereus team was headed by the Expedition Leader Andy Bowen of WHOI, Dr. Louis Whitcomb of Johns Hopkins University, and Dr. Dana Yoerger, also of WHOI. The expedition had co-chief scientists: biologist Dr. Tim Shank of WHOI, and geologist Dr. Patricia Fryer of the University of Hawaii, to head the science team exploiting the ship’s bathymetry and organizing the science experiments deployed by the Nereus.[28] From Nereus dive #007ROV to 880 m (2,887 ft) just south of Guam, to dive #010ROV into the Nero Deep at 9,050 m (29,692 ft), the testing gradually increased depths and complexities of activities at the bottom.

Dive #011ROV, on 31 May 2009, saw the Nereus piloted on a 27.8-hour underwater mission, with about ten hours transversing the eastern basin of the Challenger Deep – from the south wall, northwest to the north wall – streaming live video and data back to its mothership. A maximum depth of 10,902 m (35,768 ft) was registered at 11°22.10′N 142°35.48′E / 11.36833°N 142.59133°E / 11.36833; 142.59133. The RV Kilo Moana then relocated to the western basin, where a 19.3-hour underwater dive found a maximum depth of 10,899 m (35,758 ft) on dive #012ROV, and on dive #014ROV in the same area (11°19.59 N, 142°12.99 E) encountered a maximum depth of 10,176 m (33,386 ft). The Nereus was successful in recovering both sediment and rock samples from the eastern and the western basins with its manipulator arm for further scientific analysis. The HROV’s final dive was about 80 nmi (148.2 km) to the north of the Challenger Deep, in the backarc, where they dove 2,963 m (9,721 ft) at the TOTO Caldera (12°42.00 N, 143°31.5 E).[29][30] Nereus thus became the first vehicle to reach the Mariana Trench since 1998 and the deepest-diving vehicle then in operation.[30] Project manager and developer Andy Bowen heralded the achievement as "the start of a new era in ocean exploration".[30] Nereus, unlike Kaikō, did not need to be powered or controlled by a cable connected to a ship on the ocean surface.[31][32][30][33][34][29] The HROV Nereus was lost on 10 May 2014 while conducting a dive at 9,900 metres (32,500 ft) in depth in the Kermadec Trench.[35]

Unmanned descents near the Challenger Deep[edit]

2008 – ABISMO[edit]

Main article: ABISMO

In June 2008, the Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and Technology (JAMSTEC) deployed the research vessel Kairei to the area of Guam for cruise KR08-05 Leg 1 and Leg 2. On 1–3 June 2008, during Leg 1, the Japanese robotic deep-sea probe ABISMO (Automatic Bottom Inspection and Sampling Mobile) on dives 11–13 almost reached the bottom about 150 km (93 mi) east of the Challenger Deep: "Unfortunately, we were unable to dive to the sea floor because the legacy primary cable of the Kaiko system was a little bit short. The 2-m long gravity core sampler was dropped in free fall, and sediment samples of 1.6m length were obtained. Twelve bottles of water samples were also obtained at various depths..." ABISMO's dive #14 was into the TOTO caldera (12°42.7777 N, 143°32.4055 E), about 60 nmi northeast of the deepest waters of the central basin of the Challenger Deep, where they obtained videos of the hydrothermal plume.[36] Upon successful testing to 10,000 m (32,808 ft), JAMSTEC' ROV ABISMO became, briefly, the only full-ocean-depth rated ROV in existence. On 31 May 2009, the ABISMO was joined by the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution's HROV Nereus as the only two operational full ocean depth capable remotely operated vehicles in existence. During the ROV ABISMO's deepest sea trails dive its manometer measured a depth of 10,257 m (33,652 ft) ±3 m (10 ft) in "Area 1" (vicinity of 12°43' N, 143°33' E).[37][38]

Leg 2, under chief scientist Takashi Murashima, operated at the Challenger Deep 8–9 June 2008, testing JAMSTEC’s new full ocean depth "Free Fall Mooring System," i.e. a lander. The lander was successfully tested twice to 10,895 m (35,745 ft) depth, taking video images and sediment samplings at 11°22.14′N 142°25.76′E / 11.36900°N 142.42933°E / 11.36900; 142.42933, in the central basin of the Challenger Deep.[39]

2016 – Haidou-1[edit]

On 23 May 2016, the Chinese submersible Haidou-1 dove to a depth of 10,767 m (35,325 ft) at an undisclosed position in the Mariana Trench, making China the third country after Japan (ROV Kaikō), and the US (HROV Nereus), to deploy a full-ocean-depth ROV. This autonomous and remotely operated vehicle has a design depth of 11,000 m (36,089 ft).[40][unreliable source?]

2020 – Vityaz-D[edit]

On 8 May 2020, the Russian submersible Vityaz-D dove to a depth of 10,028 m (32,900 ft) at an undisclosed position in the Mariana Trench.[41]

Lifeforms[edit]

The summary report of the HMS Challenger expedition lists radiolaria from the two dredged samples taken when the Challenger Deep was first discovered.[42] These (Nassellaria and Spumellaria) were reported in the Report on Radiolaria (1887)[43] written by Ernst Haeckel.

On their 1960 descent, the crew of the Trieste noted that the floor consisted of diatomaceous ooze and reported observing "some type of flatfish" lying on the seabed.[44]

And as we were settling this final fathom, I saw a wonderful thing. Lying on the bottom just beneath us was some type of flatfish, resembling a sole, about 1 foot [30 cm] long and 6 inches [15 cm] across. Even as I saw him, his two round eyes on top of his head spied us – a monster of steel – invading his silent realm. Eyes? Why should he have eyes? Merely to see phosphorescence? The floodlight that bathed him was the first real light ever to enter this hadal realm. Here, in an instant, was the answer that biologists had asked for the decades. Could life exist in the greatest depths of the ocean? It could! And not only that, here apparently, was a true, bony teleost fish, not a primitive ray or elasmobranch. Yes, a highly evolved vertebrate, in time's arrow very close to man himself. Slowly, extremely slowly, this flatfish swam away. Moving along the bottom, partly in the ooze and partly in the water, he disappeared into his night. Slowly too – perhaps everything is slow at the bottom of the sea – Walsh and I shook hands.[45]

Many marine biologists are now skeptical of this supposed sighting, and it is suggested that the creature may instead have been a sea cucumber.[46][47] The video camera on board the Kaiko probe spotted a sea cucumber, a scale worm and a shrimp at the bottom.[48][49] At the bottom of the Challenger deep, the Nereus probe spotted one polychaete worm (a multi-legged predator) about an inch long.[50]

An analysis of the sediment samples collected by Kaiko found large numbers of simple organisms at 10,900 m (35,800 ft).[51] While similar lifeforms have been known to exist in shallower ocean trenches (> 7,000 m) and on the abyssal plain, the lifeforms discovered in the Challenger Deep possibly represent taxa distinct from those in shallower ecosystems.

Most of the organisms collected were simple, soft-shelled foraminifera (432 species according to National Geographic[52]), with four of the others representing species of the complex, multi-chambered genera Leptohalysis and Reophax. Eighty-five percent of the specimens were organic, soft-shelled allogromiids, which is unusual compared to samples of sediment-dwelling organisms from other deep-sea environments, where the percentage of organic-walled foraminifera ranges from 5% to 20%. As small organisms with hard, calcareous shells have trouble growing at extreme depths because of the high solubility of calcium carbonate in the pressurized water, scientists theorize that the preponderance of soft-shelled organisms in the Challenger Deep may have resulted from the typical biosphere present when the Challenger Deep was shallower than it is now. Over the course of six to nine million years, as the Challenger Deep grew to its present depth, many of the species present in the sediment died out or were unable to adapt to the increasing water pressure and changing environment.[53]

On 17 March 2013, researchers reported data that suggested microbial life forms thrive in the Challenger Deep.[54][55] Other researchers reported related studies that microbes thrive inside rocks up to 579 m (1,900 ft) below the sea floor under 2,591 m (8,500 ft) of ocean off the coast of the northwestern United States.[54][56] According to one of the researchers, "You can find microbes everywhere – they're extremely adaptable to conditions, and survive wherever they are."[54]

See also[edit]

References[edit]

  1. ^ "Chinese submarine reaches the deepest place on Earth". interestingengineering.com. Retrieved 2021-04-26.
  2. ^ "Chinese Submersible "Fendouzhe" Descended to Earth's Deepest Oceanic Trench". sciencetimes.com. Retrieved 2021-04-26.
  3. ^ "Chinese Manned Submersible Reaches Deepest Part of Mariana Trench". interestingengineering.com. Retrieved 2021-04-26.
  4. ^ "Imenco in the worlds deepest waters". imenco.no. Retrieved 2021-04-28.
  5. ^ "China breaks national record for Mariana Trench manned-dive amid race for deep sea resources". cnn.com. Retrieved 2021-04-26.
  6. ^ "Chinese submarine sends first live video back from the bottom of the Mariana Trench". abc.net.au. Retrieved 2021-04-27.
  7. ^ Victor Vescovo @ twitter
  8. ^ Richard Garriott @ twitter
  9. ^ "Brit spaceman's incredible pictures from the bottom the Earth – including selfie". mirror.co.uk. Retrieved 3 March 2021.
  10. ^ a b "Astronaut-explorer sets records on dive to deepest point on Earth". collectspace.com. Retrieved 6 March 2021.
  11. ^ VentureToTheDeep @ twitter
  12. ^ "Dubai resident Hamish Harding explores ocean's deepest point 'Challenger Deep' in record-breaking attempt" (video). gulftoday.ae. Retrieved 6 March 2021.
  13. ^ Hamish Harding @ facebook
  14. ^ Hamish Harding @ twitter
  15. ^ Blue Prosperity Micronesia @ Facebook
  16. ^ "History-making 10.9km 'Anzac Dive' to the bottom of the Mariana Trench". stuff.co.nz. Retrieved 17 April 2021.
  17. ^ "'The ANZAC Dive': Australian, New Zealander Dive To Challenger Deep – DeeperBlue.com". www.deeperblue.com. Retrieved 2021-04-10.
  18. ^ "Challenger Deep ANZAC Expedition". aladanoceanic.com. Retrieved 2021-04-18.
  19. ^ "Challenger Deep Japanese Expedition". aladanoceanic.com. Retrieved 2021-04-18.
  20. ^ "Revisiting the Challenger Deep using the ROV Kaiko" (PDF). Winter 2009 Volume 43, Number 5. Retrieved 15 December 2016.
  21. ^ http://www.godac.jamstec.go.jp/darwin/dive/kaiko/21/e
  22. ^ a b Akimoto; et al. (2001). "The deepest living foraminifera, Challenger Deep, Mariana Trench". Marine Micropaleontology. 42 (1–2): 95. Bibcode:2001MarMP..42...95A. doi:10.1016/S0377-8398(01)00012-3.
  23. ^ "Kaiko 7000II". Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and Technology – note: this ref. contains a date error. Retrieved 26 March 2012.
  24. ^ a b Cite error: The named reference Bathymetric mapping of the world’s deepest seafloor, Challenger Deep was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  25. ^ Nakanishi, M., "A Precise Bathymetric map of the World’s deepest seafloor, Challenger Deep in the Mariana Trench," Marine Geophysical Research, Table 2, 2011, p. 1
  26. ^ Cruise Summary, YK09-08, Taishi Tsubouchi "Challenger Area" p. 11
  27. ^ "Life Is Found Thriving at Ocean's Deepest Point", National Geographic News, 3 February 2005
  28. ^ Hybrid Remotely Operated Vehicle Nereus Reaches Deepest Part of the Ocean
  29. ^ a b Operations of the Nereus Underwater Robotic Vehicle, DESSC, 13 December 2009
  30. ^ a b c d "Robot sub reaches deepest ocean". BBC News. 3 June 2009. Retrieved 3 June 2009.
  31. ^ "'Nereus' reaches deepest part of the ocean". physorg.com. 2 June 2009. Retrieved 2 June 2009.
  32. ^ Cite error: The named reference Daily Reports for R/V KILO MOANA was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  33. ^ "Daily Reports for R/V KILO MOANA April and May 2009". University of Hawaii Marine Center. 31 May 2009. Archived from the original on 31 December 2013. Retrieved 31 May 2009.
  34. ^ "Hybrid Remotely Operated Vehicle "Nereus" Reaches Deepest Part of the Ocean". Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution. 2 June 2009. Retrieved 2 June 2009.
  35. ^ Amos, Jonathan (12 May 2014). "Deep-sea sub 'implodes' 10 km-down" – via www.bbc.com.
  36. ^ Yoshida, H. et.al., The ABISMO Mud and Water Sampling ROV for Surveys at 11,000 m Depth, Marine Technology Society Journal, Winter 2009, Volume 43, No. 5, pp. 87–96.
  37. ^ KAIREI Cruise Report KR08-05 Leg1: Sea Trials of the Deep Ocean ROV ABISMO 2008/05/26 – 2008/06/06 Leg2: 11,000 m class Free Fall Mooring System 2008/06/07 – 2008/06/14
  38. ^ "ABISMO", Automatic Bottom Inspection and Sampling Mobile, Succeeds in World’s First Multiple Vertical Sampling from Mid-ocean, Sea Floor and Sub-seafloor over Depth of 10,000 m in Mariana Trench 16 June 2008 Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and Technology
  39. ^ KAIREI KR08-05 Leg2 Cruise Data
  40. ^ Xinying, Zhao (23 August 2016). "Nitrogen experiment among breakthroughs". China Daily. Archived from the original on 13 October 2018.
  41. ^ RUSSIAN SUBMARINE "VITYAZ" REACHED THE BOTTOM OF THE MARIANA TRENCH, Russian geographical society, 13 May 2020
  42. ^ [1] Archived 10 March 2011 at the Wayback Machine, entry on 23 March 1875.
  43. ^ [2], Report on the Radiolaria collected by H.M.S. Challenger by Ernst Haeckel.
  44. ^ "To the bottom of the sea" Archived 3 December 2008 at the Wayback Machine, T. A. Heppenheimer, AmericanHeritage.com
  45. ^ Seven Miles Down: The Story of the Bathyscaph Trieste (1961) by J. Piccard and R. S. Dietz. pp. 172–74. Published by the Putnam, New York.
  46. ^ "James Cameron dives deep for Avatar", Guardian, 18 January 2011
  47. ^ "James Cameron heads into the abyss", Nature, 19 March 2012
  48. ^ "Mission to Marianas", New Scientist, 2 November 1996
  49. ^ "The last frontier", Time, 14 August 1995
  50. ^ Accessed 8 Oct 2009 Archived 27 October 1996 at the Wayback Machine Geography of the ocean floor near Guam with some notes on exploration of the Challenger Deep.
  51. ^ Todo, Yuko; et al. (2005). "Simple Foraminifera Flourish at the Ocean's Deepest Point". Science. 307 (5710): 689. doi:10.1126/science.1105407. PMID 15692042. S2CID 20003334.
  52. ^ Roach, John (3 February 2005). "Life Is Found Thriving at Ocean's Deepest Point". National Geographic News.
  53. ^ Roach, John. "Life If Found Thriving at Ocean's Deepest Point". National Geographic. National Geographic Society. Retrieved 17 February 2015.
  54. ^ a b c Choi, Charles Q. (17 March 2013). "Microbes Thrive in Deepest Spot on Earth". LiveScience. Retrieved 17 March 2013.
  55. ^ Glud, Ronnie; Wenzhöfer, Frank; Middleboe, Mathias; Oguri, Kazumasa; Turnewitsch, Robert; Canfield, Donald E.; Kitazato, Hiroshi (17 March 2013). "High rates of microbial carbon turnover in sediments in the deepest oceanic trench on Earth". Nature Geoscience. 6 (4): 284. Bibcode:2013NatGe...6..284G. doi:10.1038/ngeo1773.
  56. ^ Oskin, Becky (14 March 2013). "Intraterrestrials: Life Thrives in Ocean Floor". LiveScience. Retrieved 17 March 2013.

External links[edit]

11°22.4′N 142°35.5′E / 11.3733°N 142.5917°E / 11.3733; 142.5917

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