Tornado outbreak of November 7–8, 1957

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Tornado outbreak of November 7–8, 1957
Tornado outbreak
Tornadoes28
Maximum ratingF4 tornado
DurationNovember 7–8, 1957
Highest gusts66 kn (76 mph; 122 km/h) on November 7
Overall effects
Fatalities12
Injuries213
Damage$7.719 million ($83,740,000 in 2024 USD)[nb 1]
Areas affectedSouthern United States (primarily Louisiana, Texas, and Mississippi)
Part of the tornadoes and tornado outbreaks of 1957

On November 7–8, 1957, a significant tornado outbreak affected portions of the Southern United States, particularly the Golden Triangle of Southeast Texas and parts of Acadiana in Louisiana.[nb 2] The severe weather event inflicted 12 deaths and more than 200 injuries, especially in the vicinity of Beaumont and Port Arthur, Texas. The most intense tornado of the outbreak, retrospectively rated F4 on the Fujita scale, struck the town of Orange, Texas, killing one person, injuring 81 others, and causing $11⁄2 million in losses. The deadliest tornado of the outbreak was an F3 that killed four people northwest of Carencro, Louisiana. The costliest tornado of the outbreak, also rated F3, caused $2.3 million in losses in the town of Groves, Texas, killing a few people there. Other intense tornadoes occurred as far east as Mississippi and North Carolina. In all, at least 28 tornadoes were confirmed, yet others were likely present as well.

Background[edit]

On November 7, 1957, a potent trough passed over the Central United States. Meanwhile, a vigorous subtropical jet stream—possibly related to ongoing El Niño conditions—bearing winds of up to 120 knots (140 mph; 220 km/h) impinged on South Texas. By the evening, high levels of wind shear and atmospheric instability over Southeast Texas and adjourning portions of Louisiana were conducive to the formation of tornado-generating supercells; among these variables were CAPE values of up to 2,500 j/kg, high dew points that reached the lower 70s °F, precipitable water values of up to 1+3⁄4 in (44 mm), and deep-layer wind shear of up to 70 kn (81 mph; 130 km/h).[2]

Outbreak statistics[edit]

Daily statistics of tornadoes during the tornado outbreak of November 7–8, 1957
Date[nb 3] Total F-scale rating[nb 4] Deaths Injuries Damage[nb 5] Ref.
 FU   F0   F1   F2   F3   F4   F5 
November 7 19 0 0 8 6 4 1 0 12 199 $5,891,500 [9][2][10][11]
November 8 9 3 0 2 3 1 0 0 0 14 $1,827,500 [9][2][10][11]
Total 28 3 0 10 9 5 1 0 12 213 $7,719,000 [9][2][10][11]
Outbreak death toll[10][2]
State Total County County
total
Louisiana 7 Acadia 2
Rapides 3
St. Landry 2
Mississippi 2 Holmes 2
Texas 3 Jefferson 2
Orange 1
Totals 12
All deaths were tornado-related

Confirmed tornadoes[edit]

Confirmed tornadoes by Fujita rating
FU F0 F1 F2 F3 F4 F5 Total
3 0 10 9 5 1 0 ≥ 28*
"FU" denotes unclassified but confirmed tornadoes.

Prior to 1990, there is a likely undercount of tornadoes, particularly E/F0–1, with reports of weaker tornadoes becoming more common as population increased. A sharp increase in the annual average E/F0–1 count by approximately 200 tornadoes was noted upon the implementation of NEXRAD Doppler weather radar in 1990–1991.[12][nb 6] 1974 marked the first year where significant tornado (E/F2+) counts became homogenous with contemporary values, attributed to the consistent implementation of Fujita scale assessments.[16][nb 4] Numerous discrepancies on the details of tornadoes in this outbreak exist between sources. The total count of tornadoes and ratings differs from various agencies accordingly. The list below documents information from the most contemporary official sources alongside assessments from tornado historian Thomas P. Grazulis.

Color/symbol key
Color / symbol Description
† Data from Grazulis 1990/1993/2001b
Data from a local National Weather Service office
※ Data from the 1957 Climatological Data National Summary publication
‡ Data from the NCEI database
♯ Maximum width of tornado
± Tornado was rated below F2 intensity by Grazulis but a specific rating is unavailable.
List of confirmed tornadoes in the tornado outbreak of November 7–8, 1957
F# Location County / Parish State Start Coord.[nb 7] Date[nb 3] Time (UTC) Path length Width[nb 8] Damage
F1¶ Grand Prairie St. Landry Louisiana Un­known November 7 20:20–? 2 mi (3.2 km) 50 yd (46 m) $25,000
This tornado was not listed in the NCEI database or by Grazulis, but was revealed in a reanalysis by the National Weather Service.[2]
F2 Robson to Fillmore※ Caddo, Bossier※ Louisiana 32°24′N 93°42′W / 32.40°N 93.70°W / 32.40; -93.70 (Lucas (November 7, F2)) November 7 20:30–? 15 mi (24 km)※ 100 yd (91 m)※ $25,000‡
This tornado unroofed or destroyed a few homes as it traversed rural, mostly forested land. Many trees and transmission wires were downed as well. The NCEI database lists the path as traveling from Lucas to Curtis and thence to just west of Haughton.[20][21][22]
F1¶ Lowry Cameron Louisiana Un­known November 7 20:30–?‡ 1 mi (1.6 km) 50 yd (46 m)※ $2,500
This and the following two events are listed as a single tornado in the NCEI database, but were split into three distinct tracks in a reanalysis by the National Weather Service.[2]
F1¶ Andrus Cove Jefferson Davis Louisiana 30°03′N 92°45′W / 30.05°N 92.75°W / 30.05; -92.75 (Illinois Plant (November 7, F1))‡ November 7 21:00–?¶ 1 mi (1.6 km) 50 yd (46 m)※ $25,000
This, the preceding, and the following event are listed as a single tornado in the NCEI database, but were split into three distinct tracks in a reanalysis by the National Weather Service. The NCEI database lists the path as traveling from just east-northeast of Illinois Plant to south-southwest of Iota.[2][23][22]
F1¶ Gotts Cove Acadia Louisiana Un­known November 7 21:30–?¶ 5 mi (8.0 km) 50 yd (46 m)※ $25,000
This and the preceding two events are listed as a single tornado in the NCEI database, but were split into three distinct tracks in a reanalysis by the National Weather Service. Between Lowry and Iota the three events altogether damaged just a few homes.[2][22]
F2† Near Lettsworth to near Torras† Pointe Coupee Louisiana 30°58′N 91°42′W / 30.97°N 91.70°W / 30.97; -91.70 (Torras (November 7, F3)) November 7 22:50–? 3 mi (4.8 km)※ 50 yd (46 m)※ $250,000‡
This intense tornado destroyed three barns and seven homes. 12 other structures were damaged as well. Five people were injured.[20][24][22]
F1¶ Iota Acadia Louisiana Un­known November 7 23:30–? 5 mi (8.0 km) 50 yd (46 m) $25,000
One person was injured.[2]
F2† W of Leesville※ Vernon Louisiana 31°10′N 93°18′W / 31.17°N 93.30°W / 31.17; -93.30 (Hawthorne (November 7, F1)) November 7 02:35–? 1 mi (1.6 km)‡ 50 yd (46 m)‡ $25,000‡
This tornado only destroyed one home and damaged four other structures. The NCEI database lists the touchdown as southwest of Hawthorne.[20][25][22]
F2† WSW of Nome to WSW of China Jefferson Texas 30°03′N 94°20′W / 30.05°N 94.33°W / 30.05; -94.33 (China (November 7, F1)) November 7 02:45–? 5 mi (8.0 km)† 50 yd (46 m)† $14,000
This tornado damaged or destroyed three homes, one of which was a two-story structure. A Sun Oil Company utility shed was also damaged.[20][26][27][22]
F2¶ Northwestern Boyce Rapides Louisiana 31°23′N 92°40′W / 31.38°N 92.67°W / 31.38; -92.67 (Boyce (November 7, F2))‡ November 7 02:55–? 1 mi (1.6 km) 50 yd (46 m) $25,000
1 death – This strong tornado destroyed or damaged more than 11 homes, one of which shifted on its foundation. 14 people were injured. This and the following tornado are listed as one event in the NCEI database, but were split into separate events in a reanalysis by the NWS.[28]
F3 Downtown Alexandria to Wardville Rapides Louisiana Un­known November 7 03:04–?¶ 3 mi (4.8 km)¶ 75 yd (69 m)¶ $500,000
2 deaths – This intense tornado destroyed or damaged 235–315 homes in Alexandria. The tornado subsequently traversed the Red River and hit Wardville before dissipating, causing two injuries and destroying or damaging nine homes there. Only individuals—28 in all—whose injuries required medical attention were recorded; others may have received minor injuries. This and the preceding tornado are listed as one event in the NCEI database, but were split into separate events in a reanalysis by the NWS.[20][29][30][22]
F2† Southeastern Port Acres※ Jefferson Texas 29°54′N 94°00′W / 29.90°N 94.00°W / 29.90; -94.00 (Port Acres (November 7, F3)) November 7 03:10–?¶ 1.5 mi (2.4 km) 70 yd (64 m)※ $75,000†
This strong tornado damaged 15 homes and destroyed five others. Only one injury was reported.[20][31][32][22]
F3 Downtown Groves※ Jefferson Texas 29°57′N 93°56′W / 29.95°N 93.93°W / 29.95; -93.93 (Groves (November 7, F3)) November 7 03:15–? 3 mi (4.8 km)※ 150 yd (140 m)† $2,300,000†
2 deaths – Approximately 1,160 structures were destroyed or damaged, including many businesses and homes. The deaths occurred each in small homes that were flattened. 53 people were injured as well. This tornado was the costliest of the outbreak. The NCEI database lists the endpoint as south of Atreco.[20][33][34][22]
F4 Northern Orange Orange Texas 30°06′N 93°44′W / 30.10°N 93.73°W / 30.10; -93.73 (Orange (November 7, F4)) November 7 03:27–?¶ 6 mi (9.7 km)† 200 yd (180 m)† $1,500,000†
1 death – This was probably the most intense tornado of the outbreak, but only leveled frail structures beside the Sabine River in its path, so it may have merited high-end F3 status at most. About 430 homes were destroyed or damaged in Orange, including a two-story home that was flattened, killing a woman inside. A total of 12 barges and ships were torn from their moorings, some of which were moved onto the Louisiana shore. The tornado may have ended as a downburst in neighboring Louisiana. 81 people were injured, though other estimates ranged from 20 to 50. The NCEI database incorrectly labels this tornado as having moved southwestward.[35][36][37][38][39]
F1¶ Mossville Calcasieu Louisiana Un­known November 7 04:20–? 1 mi (1.6 km) 25 yd (23 m) $25,000
This tornado was not listed in the NCEI database or by Grazulis, but was revealed in a reanalysis by the National Weather Service.[2]
F3 S of Cruger to E of Greenwood※ Holmes, Leflore†, Carroll Mississippi 33°17′N 90°14′W / 33.28°N 90.23°W / 33.28; -90.23 (Keirn (November 7, F3)) November 7 05:00–? 20 mi (32 km)※ 300 yd (270 m)※ $275,000‡
2 deaths – This intense, long-tracked tornado destroyed 23 structures near Cruger, including a tenant home. A car was transported for 1⁄4 mi (0.40 km) as well. One person was injured. The NCEI database indicates that the path extended from near Keirn to near Malmaison.[20][40][41][22]
F1 Alcorn to ESE of Westside Claiborne Mississippi 31°52′N 91°09′W / 31.87°N 91.15°W / 31.87; -91.15 (Alcorn (November 7, F1)) November 7 05:05–? 4.1 mi (6.6 km)‡ 100 yd (91 m)‡ $250,000‡
This tornado struck Alcorn State University, known then as Alcorn Agricultural and Mechanical (A & M) College.[42][22]
F1 Eastern Louisville Winston Mississippi 33°07′N 89°02′W / 33.12°N 89.03°W / 33.12; -89.03 (Louisville (November 7, F1)) November 7 05:30–? 0.1 mi (0.16 km)‡ 33 yd (30 m)‡ $25,000‡
Nine structures were destroyed or damaged.[43][39]
F3 WSW of Higginbotham to between Cankton and Bristol Acadia, St. Landry Louisiana 30°21′N 92°12′W / 30.35°N 92.20°W / 30.35; -92.20 (Higginbotham (November 7, F3)) November 7 05:30–? 8 mi (13 km)¶ 200 yd (180 m) $500,000‡
4 deaths – This intense tornado destroyed or damaged 85 homes and outbuildings. Two of the dead, a couple, were cast 150 yd (140 m). 15 people were injured, though some sources list 10 to 12 injuries. An F1 tornado is incorrectly listed in the NCEI database as having killed a few people and injured 13 others near the northern edge of Carencro, but in a reanalysis by the NWS is assessed as having been the same event as this tornado. Grazulis listed a 15-mile-long (24 km) path that began southeast of Branch and ended near Sunset.[20][44][45][46][47][39]
F2† SE of Philadelphia to Gholson† Neshoba, Kemper, Noxubee Mississippi 32°45′N 89°07′W / 32.75°N 89.12°W / 32.75; -89.12 (Philadelphia (November 8, F1)) November 8 07:30–08:25※ 25 mi (40 km)† 200 yd (180 m) $750,000‡
A total of 52 structures were destroyed or damaged, including 15 barns and six homes. In all, three people were injured.[48][49][50][51][39]
F2± Eastern Pulaski to S of Berea Giles Tennessee 35°12′N 87°01′W / 35.20°N 87.02°W / 35.20; -87.02 (Pulaski (November 8, F2)) November 8 08:00–? 4 mi (6.4 km)※ 100 yd (91 m)※ $2,500‡
A strong tornado touched down in the Rebel Acres neighborhood, damaging television antennae and roofing. At Powell Chapel the tornado tore off a roof, porch, and wall. A garage and a barn were wrecked as well.[48][52][39]
F2† NW of Aliceville※ Pickens Alabama 33°08′N 88°08′W / 33.13°N 88.13°W / 33.13; -88.13 (Aliceville (November 8, F1)) November 8 08:25–? 8 mi (13 km)※ 10 yd (9.1 m)‡ $250,000‡
15 homes were destroyed or damaged. Five people were injured. The NCEI database incorrectly lists a path that extends from eastern Aliceville to east-northeast of Hickory.[48][53][54][39]
FU※ Northwestern Selma Dallas Alabama Un­known November 8 10:22–? 1.5 mi (2.4 km) 400 yd (370 m)♯ Un­known
Hundreds of houses received damage, but only two to a serious degree. A vehicle was flipped onto its side as well.[39]
F1 S of Nelson to W of Wilsonville※ Shelby Alabama 33°12′N 86°34′W / 33.20°N 86.57°W / 33.20; -86.57 (Columbiana (November 8, F1)) November 8 10:30–? 9 mi (14 km)※ 40 yd (37 m)※ $25,000‡
Sporadic damage was reported.[55][39]
F1 S of Blakely to near Leary※ Early, Calhoun Georgia 31°22′N 84°56′W / 31.37°N 84.93°W / 31.37; -84.93 (Blakely (November 8, F1)) November 8 14:20–? 15 mi (24 km)※ 33 yd (30 m)‡ $50,000‡
Seven small homes and a few larger were destroyed or damaged, along with many barns. Numerous trees were prostrated or otherwise bent in half. Fallen trees damaged a few vehicles as well. One minor injury was reported.[56][57][58]
F3 SE of Rocky Mount† Wilson, Edgecombe, Bertie※ North Carolina 35°42′N 77°45′W / 35.70°N 77.75°W / 35.70; -77.75 (Rocky Mount (November 8, F3)) November 8 23:30–00:30※ 40 mi (64 km)※ 150 yd (140 m)‡ $750,000‡
Eight homes were severely damaged or destroyed on US 64, just east of Rocky Mount. 23 farmsteads and 10 other homes were wrecked elsewhere along the path. A school was destroyed as well. 52 other structures received damage. Five people were injured. The NCEI database incorrectly lists a path from east of Drivers Store to west of Windsor via Crisp and Quitsna.[48][59][60][61][58]
FU※ Between Coker and Buhl Tuscaloosa Alabama Un­known November 8 Un­known Un­known Un­known Un­known
A utility pole was downed.[39]
FU※ Un­known Franklin Alabama Un­known November 8 Un­known Un­known Un­known Un­known
A few trees were felled, along with five utility poles.[39]

Possible tornadoes[edit]

A possible tornado occurred just south of Grenada in Grenada County, Mississippi.[62]

Non-tornadic effects[edit]

Significant thunderstorm winds were recorded throughout the event as well. On November 7, a 66-knot (76 mph; 122 km/h) wind gust was recorded in Beaumont, Texas. Two strong thunderstorm wind gusts of 65 kn (75 mph; 120 km/h) were recorded the next day in Tuscaloosa, Alabama, and at the Raleigh–Durham International Airport in Raleigh, North Carolina, respectively.[63]

See also[edit]

Notes[edit]

  1. ^ All losses are in 1957 USD unless otherwise noted.
  2. ^ An outbreak is generally defined as a group of at least six tornadoes (the number sometimes varies slightly according to local climatology) with no more than a six-hour gap between individual tornadoes. An outbreak sequence, prior to (after) the start of modern records in 1950, is defined as a period of no more than two (one) consecutive days without at least one significant (F2 or stronger) tornado.[1]
  3. ^ a b All dates are based on the local time zone where the tornado touched down; however, all times are in Coordinated Universal Time and dates are split at midnight CST/CDT for consistency.
  4. ^ a b The Fujita scale was devised under the aegis of scientist T. Theodore Fujita in the early 1970s. Prior to the advent of the scale in 1971, tornadoes in the United States were officially unrated.[3][4] Tornado ratings were retroactively applied to events prior to the formal adoption of the F-scale by the National Weather Service.[5] While the Fujita scale has been superseded by the Enhanced Fujita scale in the U.S. since February 1, 2007,[6] Canada used the old scale until April 1, 2013;[7] nations elsewhere, like the United Kingdom, apply other classifications such as the TORRO scale.[8]
  5. ^ The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's Storm Data publication does not list exact damage totals for every event, instead giving damage categories. As such, damage for individual tornadoes is not comprehensive.
  6. ^ Historically, the number of tornadoes globally and in the United States was and is likely underrepresented: research by Grazulis on annual tornado activity suggests that, as of 2001, only 53% of yearly U.S. tornadoes were officially recorded. Documentation of tornadoes outside the United States was historically less exhaustive, owing to the lack of monitors in many nations and, in some cases, to internal political controls on public information.[13] Most countries only recorded tornadoes that produced severe damage or loss of life.[14] Significant low biases in U.S. tornado counts likely occurred through the early 1990s, when advanced NEXRAD was first installed and the National Weather Service began comprehensively verifying tornado occurrences.[15]
  7. ^ All starting coordinates are based on the NCEI database and may not reflect contemporary analyses
  8. ^ The listed width values are primarily the average/mean width of the tornadoes, with those having known maximum widths denoted by ♯. From 1952 to 1994, reports largely list mean width whereas contemporary years list maximum width.[17] Values provided by Grazulis are the average width, with estimates being rounded down (i.e. 0.5 mi (0.80 km) is rounded down from 880 yards to 800 yards.[18][19]

References[edit]

  1. ^ Schneider, Russell S.; Brooks, Harold E.; Schaefer, Joseph T. (2004). Tornado Outbreak Day Sequences: Historic Events and Climatology (1875–2003) (PDF). 22nd Conf. Severe Local Storms. Hyannis, Massachusetts: American Meteorological Society. Retrieved September 17, 2019.
  2. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Shamburger, Shawn (2009). "Significant Weather Events: November 7 1957 Historic Tornado Outbreak". Lake Charles, LA Weather Forecast Office. Lake Charles, Louisiana: National Weather Service. Retrieved 6 July 2020.
  3. ^ Grazulis 1993, p. 141.
  4. ^ Grazulis 2001a, p. 131.
  5. ^ Edwards et al. 2013, p. 641–642.
  6. ^ Edwards, Roger (March 5, 2015). "Enhanced F Scale for Tornado Damage". The Online Tornado FAQ (by Roger Edwards, SPC). Storm Prediction Center. Retrieved February 25, 2016.
  7. ^ "Enhanced Fujita Scale (EF-Scale)". Environment and Climate Change Canada. Environment and Climate Change Canada. June 6, 2013. Archived from the original on March 3, 2016. Retrieved February 25, 2016.
  8. ^ "The International Tornado Intensity Scale". Tornado and Storm Research Organisation. Tornado and Storm Research Organisation. 2016. Archived from the original on March 5, 2016. Retrieved February 25, 2016.
  9. ^ a b c Grazulis 1993, pp. 1011–12.
  10. ^ a b c d Storm Data Publication 1957, Events reported
  11. ^ a b c USWB 1957.
  12. ^ Agee and Childs 2014, p. 1496.
  13. ^ Grazulis 2001a, pp. 251–4.
  14. ^ Edwards, Roger (March 5, 2015). "The Online Tornado FAQ (by Roger Edwards, SPC)". Storm Prediction Center: Frequently Asked Questions about Tornadoes. Storm Prediction Center. Retrieved February 25, 2016.
  15. ^ Cook & Schaefer 2008, p. 3135.
  16. ^ Agee and Childs 2014, pp. 1497, 1503.
  17. ^ Agee and Childs 2014, p. 1494.
  18. ^ Brooks 2004, p. 310.
  19. ^ Grazulis 1990, p. ix.
  20. ^ a b c d e f g h i Grazulis 1993, p. 1011.
  21. ^ Storm Data Publication 1957, #10030460
  22. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k USWB 1957, p. 487.
  23. ^ Storm Data Publication 1957, #10030459
  24. ^ Storm Data Publication 1957, #10030461
  25. ^ Storm Data Publication 1957, #10030463
  26. ^ Shamburger, Shawn (2009). "Nome/China TX Tornado". Lake Charles, LA Weather Forecast Office. Lake Charles, Louisiana: National Weather Service. Retrieved 6 July 2020.
  27. ^ Storm Data Publication 1957, #10121173
  28. ^ Shamburger, Shawn (2009). "Boyce LA Tornado". Lake Charles, LA Weather Forecast Office. Lake Charles, Louisiana: National Weather Service. Retrieved 6 July 2020.
  29. ^ Shamburger, Shawn (2009). "Alexandria LA Tornado". Lake Charles, LA Weather Forecast Office. Lake Charles, Louisiana: National Weather Service. Retrieved 6 July 2020.
  30. ^ Storm Data Publication 1957, #10030464
  31. ^ Shamburger, Shawn (2009). "Port Acres TX Tornado". Lake Charles, LA Weather Forecast Office. Lake Charles, Louisiana: National Weather Service. Retrieved 6 July 2020.
  32. ^ Storm Data Publication 1957, #10121176
  33. ^ Shamburger, Shawn (2009). "Groves TX Tornado". Lake Charles, LA Weather Forecast Office. Lake Charles, Louisiana: National Weather Service. Retrieved 6 July 2020.
  34. ^ Storm Data Publication 1957, #10121175
  35. ^ Grazulis 1984, p. A-68.
  36. ^ Grazulis 1993, pp. 1011–2.
  37. ^ Shamburger, Shawn (2009). "Orange TX Tornado". Lake Charles, LA Weather Forecast Office. Lake Charles, Louisiana: National Weather Service. Retrieved 9 July 2020.
  38. ^ Storm Data Publication 1957, #10121177
  39. ^ a b c d e f g h i j USWB 1957, p. 488.
  40. ^ Storm Data Publication 1957, #10049875
  41. ^ Storm Data Publication 1957, #10049877
  42. ^ Storm Data Publication 1957, #10049876
  43. ^ Storm Data Publication 1957, #10049878
  44. ^ Shamburger, Shawn (2009). "Higginbotham LA Tornado". Lake Charles, LA Weather Forecast Office. Lake Charles, Louisiana: National Weather Service. Retrieved 9 July 2020.
  45. ^ Storm Data Publication 1957, #10030466
  46. ^ Storm Data Publication 1957, #10030467
  47. ^ Storm Data Publication 1957, #10030468
  48. ^ a b c d Grazulis 1993, p. 1012.
  49. ^ Storm Data Publication 1957, #10049879
  50. ^ Storm Data Publication 1957, #10049880
  51. ^ Storm Data Publication 1957, #10049881
  52. ^ Storm Data Publication 1957, #10123842
  53. ^ Storm Data Publication 1957, #9977928
  54. ^ United States Department of Commerce; National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. "Alabama Tornadoes 1957". NWS Birmingham, Alabama Weather Forecast Office. Calera, Alabama: National Weather Service. Retrieved 25 August 2023.
  55. ^ Storm Data Publication 1957, #9977930
  56. ^ Storm Data Publication 1957, #9994284
  57. ^ Storm Data Publication 1957, #9994072
  58. ^ a b USWB 1957, p. 489.
  59. ^ Storm Data Publication 1957, #10078078
  60. ^ Storm Data Publication 1957, #10078079
  61. ^ Storm Data Publication 1957, #10078080
  62. ^ USWB 1957, pp. 487–8.
  63. ^ Multiple sources:

Sources[edit]

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