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[[File:Balanites aegyptiaca MHNT.BOT.2009.13.5.jpg|thumb|''Balanites aegyptiaca'' - [[MHNT]]]]
[[File:Balanites aegyptiaca MHNT.BOT.2009.13.5.jpg|thumb|''Balanites aegyptiaca'' - [[MHNT]]]]


'''''Balanites aegyptiaca''''' is a species of [[tree]], classified either as a member of the [[Zygophyllaceae]] or the Balanitaceae.<ref name=aluka>[http://www.aluka.org/action/showCompilationPage?doi=10.5555/AL.AP.COMPILATION.PLANT-NAME-SPECIES.BALANITES.AEGYPTIACA&cookieSet=1 Aluka Species Profile]</ref> This tree is native to much of [[Africa]] and parts of the [[Middle East]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/taxon.pl?6322 |title=Balanites aegyptiacus (L.) Delile |work=Germplasm Resources Information Network |publisher=United States Department of Agriculture |date=2008-04-03 |accessdate=2009-10-02}}</ref>
'''''Balanites aegyptiaca''''' is a species of [[tree]], classified either as a member of the [[Zygophyllaceae]] or the Balanitaceae.<ref name=plantlist>{{Cite web | url = http://www.theplantlist.org/browse/A/Zygophyllaceae/ | title = Zygophyllaceae | accessdate = 27 November 2016 | publisher = The Plant List}}</ref> This tree is native to much of [[Africa]] and parts of the [[Middle East]].<ref name = GRIN/>


There are many common names for this plant.<ref name=purdue/> In [[English language|English]] the fruit has been called desert date, soap berry tree or bush, Thron tree, Egyptian myrobalan, Egyptian balsam or Zachum oil tree;<ref name=Iwu>{{cite book|last=Iwu|first=Maurice M.|title=Handbook of African medicinal plants|year=1993|publisher=CRC Press|location=Boca Raton u.a.|isbn=084934266X|pages=129}}</ref> in [[Arabic language|Arabic]] it is known as ''lalob'', ''hidjihi'', ''inteishit'', and ''heglig'' (''hijlij''). In [[Hausa language|Hausa]] it is called ''aduwa,'' in Swahili ''mchunju'' and in [[Amharic language|Amharic]] ''bedena''.<ref>Yves Guinand and Dechassa Lemessa, [http://www.ocha-eth.org/Archive/DownloadableReports/famp0300.pdf "Wild-Food Plants in Southern Ethiopia: Reflections on the role of 'famine-foods' at a time of drought"] UN-OCHA Report, March 2000 (accessed 15 January 2009)</ref>
There are many common names for this plant.<ref name=purdue/> In [[English language|English]] the fruit has been called desert date, soap berry tree or bush, Thron tree, Egyptian myrobalan, Egyptian balsam or Zachum oil tree;<ref name=Iwu>{{cite book|last=Iwu|first=Maurice M.|title=Handbook of African medicinal plants|year=1993|publisher=CRC Press|location=Boca Raton u.a.|isbn=084934266X|pages=129}}</ref> in [[Arabic language|Arabic]] it is known as ''lalob'', ''hidjihi'', ''inteishit'', and ''heglig'' (''hijlij''). In [[Hausa language|Hausa]] it is called ''aduwa,'' in Swahili ''mchunju'' and in [[Amharic language|Amharic]] ''bedena''.<ref>Yves Guinand and Dechassa Lemessa, [http://www.ocha-eth.org/Archive/DownloadableReports/famp0300.pdf "Wild-Food Plants in Southern Ethiopia: Reflections on the role of 'famine-foods' at a time of drought"] UN-OCHA Report, March 2000 (accessed 15 January 2009)</ref>


==Distribution==
==Distribution==
''Balanites aegyptiaca'' is found in the Sahel-Savannah region across Africa. It is one of the most common trees in [[Senegal]] and Mauritania, one of its local names is teishit.<ref name=ndoye>Ndoye, M., et al. (2004). [http://www.academicjournals.org/AJB/PDF/Pdf2004/JanPDFs2004/Ndoye%20et%20al.pdf Reproductive biology in ''Balanites aegyptiaca'' (L.) Del., a semi-arid forest tree]. ''African Journal of Biotechnology''. 3:1 40-46.</ref> It can be found in many kinds of habitat, tolerating a wide variety of [[soil]] types, from [[sand]] to heavy [[clay]], and climatic moisture levels, from [[arid]] to subhumid.<ref name=fao>[http://www.fao.org/docrep/x5327e/x5327e0m.htm Indigenous Multipurpose Trees of Tanzania]</ref> It is relatively tolerant of flooding, livestock activity, and [[wildfire]].<ref name=fao/>
''Balanites aegyptiaca'' is found in the Sahel-Savannah region across Africa. It is one of the most common trees in [[Senegal]] and Mauritania, one of its local names is teishit.<ref name=ndoye>Ndoye, M., et al. (2004). [http://www.academicjournals.org/AJB/PDF/Pdf2004/JanPDFs2004/Ndoye%20et%20al.pdf Reproductive biology in ''Balanites aegyptiaca'' (L.) Del., a semi-arid forest tree]. ''African Journal of Biotechnology''. 3:1 40-46.</ref> It can be found in many kinds of habitat, tolerating a wide variety of [[soil]] types, from [[sand]] to heavy [[clay]], and climatic moisture levels, from [[arid]] to subhumid.<ref name=fao>{{cite web |url = http://www.fao.org/docrep/019/x5327e/x5327e.pdf | title = Indigenous Multipurpose Trees of Tanzania | accessdate = 27 November 2016 | publisher = FAO}}</ref> It is relatively tolerant of flooding, livestock activity, and [[wildfire]].<ref name=fao/>


==Description==
==Description==
The ''Balanites aegyptiaca'' tree reaches {{convert|10|m|ft|abbr=on}} in height with a generally narrow form. The branches have long, straight green spines arranged in spirals. The dark green compound leaves grow out of the base of the spines<ref name=Iwu/>
The ''Balanites aegyptiaca'' tree reaches {{convert|10|m|ft|abbr=on}} in height with a generally narrow form. The branches have long, straight green spines arranged in spirals. The dark green compound leaves grow out of the base of the spines<ref name=Iwu/>
and are made up of two leaflets which are variable in size and shape.<ref name=waf>[http://www.worldagroforestrycentre.org/sites/TreeDBS/aft/speciesPrinterFriendly.asp?Id=279 World Agroforestry Centre]{{dead link|date=October 2016 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> The fluted trunk has grayish-brown, ragged bark with yellow-green patches where it is shed.<ref name=Iwu/>
and are made up of two leaflets which are variable in size and shape.<ref name=waf>{{cite journal | author1 =Daya L. Chothani | author2 = H. U. Vaghasiya |year = 2011 | url = https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3210005/ | title = A review on Balanites aegyptiaca Del (desert date): phytochemical constituents, traditional uses, and pharmacological activity | journal = Pharmacognosy Review | volume = 5 | issue = 9 pages = 55-62}}</ref> The fluted trunk has grayish-brown, ragged bark with yellow-green patches where it is shed.<ref name=Iwu/>


The tree produces several forms of [[inflorescence]] bearing yellow-green [[plant sexuality|bisexual flowers]] with five long greenish petals.<ref name=Iwu/><ref name=ndoye/> In Senegal, they are [[Entomophily|pollinated]] by [[Halictidae|halictid bees]], including ''[[Halictus gibber]]'', and [[diptera|flies]], including ''[[Rhinia apicalis]]'' and ''[[Chrysomia chloropiza]]''.<ref name=ndoye/> The [[carpenter ant]] ''[[Camponotus sericeus]]'' feeds on the nectar exuded by the flowers.<ref name=ndoye/> The larva of the cabbage tree emperor moth ''[[Bunaea alcinoe]]'' causes [[defoliant|defoliation]] of the tree.<ref name=fao/>
The tree produces several forms of [[inflorescence]] bearing yellow-green [[plant sexuality|bisexual flowers]] with five long greenish petals.<ref name=Iwu/><ref name=ndoye/> In Senegal, they are [[Entomophily|pollinated]] by [[Halictidae|halictid bees]], including ''[[Halictus gibber]]'', and [[diptera|flies]], including ''[[Rhinia apicalis]]'' and ''[[Chrysomia chloropiza]]''.<ref name=ndoye/> The [[carpenter ant]] ''[[Camponotus sericeus]]'' feeds on the nectar exuded by the flowers.<ref name=ndoye/> The larva of the cabbage tree emperor moth ''[[Bunaea alcinoe]]'' causes [[defoliant|defoliation]] of the tree.<ref name=fao/>
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==Cultivation==
==Cultivation==
===Food===
===Food===
''Balanites aegyptiaca'' has been cultivated in Egypt for more than 4000 years, and stones placed in the tombs as votive offerings have been found as far back as the [[Twelfth Dynasty]]. The tree was figured and described in 1592 by [[Prosper Alpinus]] under the name 'agihalid'. Linnaeus regarded it as a species of ''[[Ximenia]]'', but [[Adanson]] proposed the new genus of ''Agialid''. The genus ''Balanites'' was founded in 1813 by [[Alire Raffeneau Delile|Delile]].<ref>http://www.botanicus.org/page/1167261</ref>
''Balanites aegyptiaca'' has been cultivated in Egypt for more than 4000 years, and stones placed in the tombs as votive offerings have been found as far back as the [[Twelfth Dynasty]]. The tree was figured and described in 1592 by [[Prosper Alpinus]] under the name 'agihalid'. Linnaeus regarded it as a species of ''[[Ximenia]]'', but [[Adanson]] proposed the new genus of ''Agialid''. The genus ''Balanites'' was founded in 1813 by [[Alire Raffeneau Delile|Delile]].<ref name = GRIN>{{cite web | url = https://npgsweb.ars-grin.gov/gringlobal/taxonomygenus.aspx?id=1241 | title = Genus: ''Balanites'' Delile | accessdate = 27 November 2016 | publisher = U.S. National Plant Germplasm System}}</ref>


The yellow, single-[[seed]]ed [[fruit]] is edible, but [[Taste#Bitterness|bitter]].<ref name=fao/> Many parts of the plant are used as [[famine food]]s in Africa; the leaves are eaten raw or cooked, the oily seed is boiled to make it less bitter and eaten mixed with [[sorghum]], and the flowers can be eaten.<ref name=purdue>[http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/faminefoods/ff_families/balanitaceae.html Purdue Horticulture: Famine Foods]</ref> The tree is considered valuable in arid regions because it produces fruit even in dry times.<ref name=fao/> The fruit can be [[Ethanol fermentation|fermented]] for [[alcoholic beverage]]s.<ref name=waf/>
The yellow, single-[[seed]]ed [[fruit]] is edible, but [[Taste#Bitterness|bitter]].<ref name=fao/> Many parts of the plant are used as [[famine food]]s in Africa; the leaves are eaten raw or cooked, the oily seed is boiled to make it less bitter and eaten mixed with [[sorghum]], and the flowers can be eaten.<ref name=purdue>{{cite web | url = https://hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/FamineFoods/ff_families/BALANITACEAE.html#Balanites ægyptiaca | title = BALANITACEAE | accessdate = 27 November 2016 | publisher = Robert Freedman|work = Famine Foods}}</ref> The tree is considered valuable in arid regions because it produces fruit even in dry times.<ref name=fao/> The fruit can be [[Ethanol fermentation|fermented]] for [[alcoholic beverage]]s.<ref name=waf/>


The [[press cake|seed cake]] remaining after the oil is extracted is commonly used as [[fodder|animal fodder]] in Africa.<ref name=waf/> The seeds of the ''Balanites aegyptiaca'' have [[molluscicide]] effect on ''[[Biomphalaria pfeifferi]]''.<ref name="Hamidou">Hamidou T. H., Kabore H., Ouattara O., Ouédraogo S., Guissou I. P. & Sawadogo L. () "Efficacy of ''Balanites aegyptiaca''(L.) DEL Balanitaceae as Anthelminthic and Molluscicid Used by Traditional Healers in Burkina Faso". International Conference on Emerging Infectious Diseases 2002. page 37. [http://www.cdc.gov/ICEID/asm-iceid_program.pdf PDF]</ref>
The [[press cake|seed cake]] remaining after the oil is extracted is commonly used as [[fodder|animal fodder]] in Africa.<ref name=waf/> The seeds of the ''Balanites aegyptiaca'' have [[molluscicide]] effect on ''[[Biomphalaria pfeifferi]]''.<ref name="Hamidou">Hamidou T. H., Kabore H., Ouattara O., Ouédraogo S., Guissou I. P. & Sawadogo L. () "Efficacy of ''Balanites aegyptiaca''(L.) DEL Balanitaceae as Anthelminthic and Molluscicid Used by Traditional Healers in Burkina Faso". International Conference on Emerging Infectious Diseases 2002. page 37. [http://www.cdc.gov/ICEID/asm-iceid_program.pdf PDF]</ref>
Line 43: Line 43:
Desert date fruit is mixed into [[porridge]] and eaten by nursing mothers, and the oil is consumed for [[headache]] and to improve [[lactation]].<ref name=purdue/>
Desert date fruit is mixed into [[porridge]] and eaten by nursing mothers, and the oil is consumed for [[headache]] and to improve [[lactation]].<ref name=purdue/>


Bark extracts and the fruit repel<ref name=agro/> or destroy<ref name=Iwu/> freshwater [[snail]]s and [[copepod]]s, organisms that act as intermediary hosts host the parasites [[schistosomiasis|Schistosoma]], including [[Bilharzia]], and [[Dracunculiasis|guinea worm]], respectively. Existing worm infections are likewise treated with desert date, as are liver and spleen disorders. A [[decoction]] of the bark are also used as an [[Abortifacient]] and an antidote for arrow-poison in West African traditional medicine.<ref name=Iwu/>
Bark extracts and the fruit repel<ref name=Molla/> or destroy<ref name=Iwu/> freshwater [[snail]]s and [[copepod]]s, organisms that act as intermediary hosts host the parasites [[schistosomiasis|Schistosoma]], including [[Bilharzia]], and [[Dracunculiasis|guinea worm]], respectively. Existing worm infections are likewise treated with desert date, as are liver and spleen disorders. A [[decoction]] of the bark are also used as an [[Abortifacient]] and an antidote for arrow-poison in West African traditional medicine.<ref name=Iwu/>


The seed contains 30-48% fixed (non-volatile) [[Vegetable fats and oils|oil]], like the leaves, fruit pulp, bark and roots, and contains the [[sapogenin]]s [[diosgenin]] and [[yamogenin]].<ref name=Iwu/><ref name=agro>[http://www.css.cornell.edu/ecf3/web/new/af/treeBaegypt.html International Agroforestry Resources]</ref> Saponins likewise occur in the roots, bark wood and fruit.<ref name=Iwu/> Diosgenin can be used to produce [[hormone]]s such as those in [[combined oral contraceptive pill]]s and [[corticoids]].<ref name=ndoye/>
The seed contains 30-48% fixed (non-volatile) [[Vegetable fats and oils|oil]], like the leaves, fruit pulp, bark and roots, and contains the [[sapogenin]]s [[diosgenin]] and [[yamogenin]].<ref name=Iwu/><ref name=Molla>{{cite journal | author1 =
Eshetu Molla | author2 = Mirutse Giday | author3 = Berhanu Erko |year = 2013 | title = Laboratory assessment of the molluscicidal and cercariacidal activities of ''Balanites aegyptiaca'' | url = https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3703561/ | journal = The Asian Pacific Journal of Tropical Biomedicine | volume = 3 | issue =8 |pages = 657–662}}</ref> Saponins likewise occur in the roots, bark wood and fruit.<ref name=Iwu/> Diosgenin can be used to produce [[hormone]]s such as those in [[combined oral contraceptive pill]]s and [[corticoids]].<ref name=ndoye/>


===Agroforestry===
===Agroforestry===
The tree is managed through [[agroforestry]]. It is planted along irrigation canals and it is used to attract insects for trapping.<ref name=fao/> The pale to brownish yellow wood is used to make furniture and durable items such as tools, and it is a low-smoke [[firewood]] and good [[charcoal]].<ref name=fao/><ref name=waf/> The smaller trees and branches are used as living or cut fences because they are resilient and thorny.<ref name=fao/><ref name=waf/><ref name=agro/> The tree [[nitrogen fixation|fixes nitrogen]].<ref name=fao/> It is grown for its fruit in [[plantation]]s in several areas.<ref name=waf/> The bark yields [[natural fiber|fibers]], the [[natural gum]]s from the branches are used as [[adhesive|glue]], and the seeds have been used to make [[Jewellery|jewelry]] and [[bead]]s.<ref name=waf/>
The tree is managed through [[agroforestry]]. It is planted along irrigation canals and it is used to attract insects for trapping.<ref name=fao/> The pale to brownish yellow wood is used to make furniture and durable items such as tools, and it is a low-smoke [[firewood]] and good [[charcoal]].<ref name=fao/><ref name=waf/> The smaller trees and branches are used as living or cut fences because they are resilient and thorny.<ref name=fao/><ref name=waf/><ref name=nap>{{cite book | author = National Research Council |year = 2008 |title = Lost Crops of Africa Volume III Fruits | url = https://www.nap.edu/read/11879/chapter/3#29 | chapter = 1. ''Balanites aegyptica'' Desert Date | publisher = National Acdemies Press | ISBN = 0-309-10597-8}}</ref> The tree [[nitrogen fixation|fixes nitrogen]].<ref name=fao/> It is grown for its fruit in [[plantation]]s in several areas.<ref name=waf/> The bark yields [[natural fiber|fibers]], the [[natural gum]]s from the branches are used as [[adhesive|glue]], and the seeds have been used to make [[Jewellery|jewelry]] and [[bead]]s.<ref name=waf/>


==References==
==References==

Revision as of 14:47, 27 November 2016

Balanites aegyptiaca
Scientific classification
Kingdom:
Plantae
(unranked):
Angiosperms
(unranked):
Eudicots
(unranked):
Rosids
Order:
Zygophyllales
Family:
Zygophyllaceae
Genus:
Balanites
Species:
B. aegyptiaca
Binomial name
Balanites aegyptiaca
(L.) Delile, 1812
Synonyms

Ximenia aegyptiaca L.

Balanites aegyptiaca - MHNT

Balanites aegyptiaca is a species of tree, classified either as a member of the Zygophyllaceae or the Balanitaceae.[1] This tree is native to much of Africa and parts of the Middle East.[2]

There are many common names for this plant.[3] In English the fruit has been called desert date, soap berry tree or bush, Thron tree, Egyptian myrobalan, Egyptian balsam or Zachum oil tree;[4] in Arabic it is known as lalob, hidjihi, inteishit, and heglig (hijlij). In Hausa it is called aduwa, in Swahili mchunju and in Amharic bedena.[5]

Distribution

Balanites aegyptiaca is found in the Sahel-Savannah region across Africa. It is one of the most common trees in Senegal and Mauritania, one of its local names is teishit.[6] It can be found in many kinds of habitat, tolerating a wide variety of soil types, from sand to heavy clay, and climatic moisture levels, from arid to subhumid.[7] It is relatively tolerant of flooding, livestock activity, and wildfire.[7]

Description

The Balanites aegyptiaca tree reaches 10 m (33 ft) in height with a generally narrow form. The branches have long, straight green spines arranged in spirals. The dark green compound leaves grow out of the base of the spines[4] and are made up of two leaflets which are variable in size and shape.[8] The fluted trunk has grayish-brown, ragged bark with yellow-green patches where it is shed.[4]

The tree produces several forms of inflorescence bearing yellow-green bisexual flowers with five long greenish petals.[4][6] In Senegal, they are pollinated by halictid bees, including Halictus gibber, and flies, including Rhinia apicalis and Chrysomia chloropiza.[6] The carpenter ant Camponotus sericeus feeds on the nectar exuded by the flowers.[6] The larva of the cabbage tree emperor moth Bunaea alcinoe causes defoliation of the tree.[7]

Cultivation

Food

Balanites aegyptiaca has been cultivated in Egypt for more than 4000 years, and stones placed in the tombs as votive offerings have been found as far back as the Twelfth Dynasty. The tree was figured and described in 1592 by Prosper Alpinus under the name 'agihalid'. Linnaeus regarded it as a species of Ximenia, but Adanson proposed the new genus of Agialid. The genus Balanites was founded in 1813 by Delile.[2]

The yellow, single-seeded fruit is edible, but bitter.[7] Many parts of the plant are used as famine foods in Africa; the leaves are eaten raw or cooked, the oily seed is boiled to make it less bitter and eaten mixed with sorghum, and the flowers can be eaten.[3] The tree is considered valuable in arid regions because it produces fruit even in dry times.[7] The fruit can be fermented for alcoholic beverages.[8]

The seed cake remaining after the oil is extracted is commonly used as animal fodder in Africa.[8] The seeds of the Balanites aegyptiaca have molluscicide effect on Biomphalaria pfeifferi.[9]

Where the species coexist, African elephants consume the desert date.[10]

Medicinal

Desert date fruit is mixed into porridge and eaten by nursing mothers, and the oil is consumed for headache and to improve lactation.[3]

Bark extracts and the fruit repel[11] or destroy[4] freshwater snails and copepods, organisms that act as intermediary hosts host the parasites Schistosoma, including Bilharzia, and guinea worm, respectively. Existing worm infections are likewise treated with desert date, as are liver and spleen disorders. A decoction of the bark are also used as an Abortifacient and an antidote for arrow-poison in West African traditional medicine.[4]

The seed contains 30-48% fixed (non-volatile) oil, like the leaves, fruit pulp, bark and roots, and contains the sapogenins diosgenin and yamogenin.[4][11] Saponins likewise occur in the roots, bark wood and fruit.[4] Diosgenin can be used to produce hormones such as those in combined oral contraceptive pills and corticoids.[6]

Agroforestry

The tree is managed through agroforestry. It is planted along irrigation canals and it is used to attract insects for trapping.[7] The pale to brownish yellow wood is used to make furniture and durable items such as tools, and it is a low-smoke firewood and good charcoal.[7][8] The smaller trees and branches are used as living or cut fences because they are resilient and thorny.[7][8][12] The tree fixes nitrogen.[7] It is grown for its fruit in plantations in several areas.[8] The bark yields fibers, the natural gums from the branches are used as glue, and the seeds have been used to make jewelry and beads.[8]

References

  1. ^ "Zygophyllaceae". The Plant List. Retrieved 27 November 2016.
  2. ^ a b "Genus: Balanites Delile". U.S. National Plant Germplasm System. Retrieved 27 November 2016.
  3. ^ a b c ægyptiaca "BALANITACEAE". Famine Foods. Robert Freedman. Retrieved 27 November 2016. {{cite web}}: Check |url= value (help)
  4. ^ a b c d e f g h Iwu, Maurice M. (1993). Handbook of African medicinal plants. Boca Raton u.a.: CRC Press. p. 129. ISBN 084934266X.
  5. ^ Yves Guinand and Dechassa Lemessa, "Wild-Food Plants in Southern Ethiopia: Reflections on the role of 'famine-foods' at a time of drought" UN-OCHA Report, March 2000 (accessed 15 January 2009)
  6. ^ a b c d e Ndoye, M., et al. (2004). Reproductive biology in Balanites aegyptiaca (L.) Del., a semi-arid forest tree. African Journal of Biotechnology. 3:1 40-46.
  7. ^ a b c d e f g h i "Indigenous Multipurpose Trees of Tanzania" (PDF). FAO. Retrieved 27 November 2016.
  8. ^ a b c d e f g Daya L. Chothani; H. U. Vaghasiya (2011). "A review on Balanites aegyptiaca Del (desert date): phytochemical constituents, traditional uses, and pharmacological activity". Pharmacognosy Review. 5 (9 pages = 55-62). {{cite journal}}: Missing pipe in: |issue= (help)
  9. ^ Hamidou T. H., Kabore H., Ouattara O., Ouédraogo S., Guissou I. P. & Sawadogo L. () "Efficacy of Balanites aegyptiaca(L.) DEL Balanitaceae as Anthelminthic and Molluscicid Used by Traditional Healers in Burkina Faso". International Conference on Emerging Infectious Diseases 2002. page 37. PDF
  10. ^ Kinloch, Bruce (1972). The shamba raiders : memories of a game warden (3rd ed.). Hampshire: Ashford. p. 217. ISBN 1852530359.
  11. ^ a b Eshetu Molla; Mirutse Giday; Berhanu Erko (2013). "Laboratory assessment of the molluscicidal and cercariacidal activities of Balanites aegyptiaca". The Asian Pacific Journal of Tropical Biomedicine. 3 (8): 657–662.
  12. ^ National Research Council (2008). "1. Balanites aegyptica Desert Date". Lost Crops of Africa Volume III Fruits. National Acdemies Press. ISBN 0-309-10597-8.

External links

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