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In 1503, with the conquest and colonization of the island, the Spanish began to import large numbers of African slaves to replace the native labor, greatly reduced by wars, brutal working conditions and epidemics. About 80 or 90% of the native population died in the first century of the conquest. Meanwhile between 1492 and 1870 some 30,000 Africans were imported to the current Dominican territory to be devoted to sugar.<ref>[http://books.google.es/books?id=2s7KNZsq7bsC&pg=PT3&lpg=PT3&dq=esclavitud+en+la+am%C3%A9rica+espa%C3%B1ola.+de+Jose+Andres+Gallego&source=bl&ots=paUkdFZE_U&sig=zdAmRb_UMx9NObdFuJ7mHWlZa7M&hl=es&sa=X&ei=9kZ5UdODGIawhAf5kYHACA&ved=0CGcQ6AEwCA La Esclavitud en la América española] (in Spanish: Slavery in Spanish America). Written by José Andrés Gallego. Publicated in 2005. Page 19.</ref>
In 1503, with the conquest and colonization of the island, the Spanish began to import large numbers of African slaves to replace the native labor, greatly reduced by wars, brutal working conditions and epidemics. About 80 or 90% of the native population died in the first century of the conquest. Meanwhile between 1492 and 1870 some 30,000 Africans were imported to the current Dominican territory to be devoted to sugar.<ref>[http://books.google.es/books?id=2s7KNZsq7bsC&pg=PT3&lpg=PT3&dq=esclavitud+en+la+am%C3%A9rica+espa%C3%B1ola.+de+Jose+Andres+Gallego&source=bl&ots=paUkdFZE_U&sig=zdAmRb_UMx9NObdFuJ7mHWlZa7M&hl=es&sa=X&ei=9kZ5UdODGIawhAf5kYHACA&ved=0CGcQ6AEwCA La Esclavitud en la América española] (in Spanish: Slavery in Spanish America). Written by José Andrés Gallego. Publicated in 2005. Page 19.</ref>


In 1503, arrived the first African slaves to the [[Española Island]], mostly to the present Dominican Republic, since Spain had largely neglected the west of the island. This first slaves were Black "Ladinos", i.e. born in Spain and Christianized<ref name= UNHCR/> and arrived as servants for the home of the island´s Spanish elite.<ref name= antislavery/> However, the number of slaves imported to the island was already sufficient for developed rebellions and escapes to the mountains by themselves. The rebels Africans lived with the indigenous in shelters away from urban centers.<ref name = jmarcano>[http://www.jmarcano.com/mipais/cultura/deive.html Mi país]. Retrieved December 20, 2012, to 12:55 pm. Publicated by Carlos Estaban Deide.</ref> Even so, in 1510, were imported to the island others 250 Ladino slaves<ref name= UNHCR>{{cite web | url = http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/country,,,COUNTRYPROF,DOM,,4954ce1923,0.html| title = World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples - Dominican Republic: Overview | accessdate = June 3, 2011 | author = Minority Rights Group International - MRGI | year = 2007 | publisher = | quote =}}</ref> and in 1511, arrived others 5.000 African slaves to the shores of the island.<ref name= antislavery>[http://old.antislavery.org/breakingthesilence/slave_routes/slave_routes_dominicanrepublic.shtml Slave Routes - Americas and Carabbean]. Retrieved 03, February 2013, to 1:50pm</ref> In addition, with the establishment of the world's first sugar mill on the Española island in 1516, the importation of African slaves greatly increased.
In 1503, arrived the first African slaves to the [[Española Island]], mostly to the present Dominican Republic, since Spain had largely neglected the west of the island. This first slaves were Black "Ladinos", i.e. born in Spain and Christianized<ref name= UNHCR/> and arrived as servants for the home of the island´s Spanish elite.<ref name= antislavery/> However, the number of slaves imported to the island was already sufficient for developed rebellions and escapes to the mountains by themselves. The rebels Africans lived with the indigenous in shelters away from urban centers.<ref name = jmarcano>[http://www.jmarcano.com/mipais/cultura/deive.html Mi país: NOTAS SOBRE LA CULTURA DOMINICANA] (in Spanish: Notes respect to the Dominican culture). Posted by Carlos Esteban Deive, from an article published in Boletín del Museo del Hombre Dominicano (in Spanish: Bulletin of the Museum of Dominican Man) - Año VIII, Núm. 12 (Enero 1979). Retrieved December 20, 2012, to 12:55 pm. </ref> Even so, in 1510, were imported to the island others 250 Ladino slaves<ref name= UNHCR>{{cite web | url = http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/country,,,COUNTRYPROF,DOM,,4954ce1923,0.html| title = World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples - Dominican Republic: Overview | accessdate = June 3, 2011 | author = Minority Rights Group International - MRGI | year = 2007 | publisher = | quote =}}</ref> and in 1511, arrived others 5.000 African slaves to the shores of the island.<ref name= antislavery>[http://old.antislavery.org/breakingthesilence/slave_routes/slave_routes_dominicanrepublic.shtml Slave Routes - Americas and Carabbean]. Retrieved 03, February 2013, to 1:50pm</ref> In addition, with the establishment of the world's first sugar mill on the Española island in 1516, the importation of African slaves greatly increased.


The slaves brought to Santo Domingo came from various parts of Africa and therefore belonged to different cultures. Although in the early days the slaves were Ladino, as traffic and intensified trade and colonial authorities demanded more slave labor for plantations and other housekeeping, were allowed introduction of black "bozales", i.e. slaves imported directly from Africa. In 1522 took place on the island, the first major slave rebellion,<ref name= UNHCR/> rebellion led by 20 Muslims of [[Wolof people|Wolof]] origin, originating from [[Senegal]], in an ingenio (sugar factory) of east of Santo Domingo island<ref name= antislavery/> Many of the insurgents fled to the mountains and established what would become the first autonomous community African [[Maroon (people)|Maroon]] in America.<ref name= UNHCR/> However, after the success of this revolt, slave revolts continued to emerge. So, emerged some leaders of African slaves, although already baptized by the Spanish, as is the case of Juan Vaquero, Diego de Guzmán and Diego del Campo. His rebellion led many slaves to flee their oppressors and establish many communities in the South West, North and East of the island, causing the first arrival of slaves, but free, in the current Haiti (remember that although this part of the island was also Spanish until 1697, when it was sold to France, had no Spanish people living in it). This caused some concern among slaveholders and contributed to the Spanish emigration to other places. Thus, although sugarcane increased profitability in the island, the number of imported slaves who fled into it, continued to rise, mixing with [[Taino people|Taino]] indigenous of these regions. So, in 1530, Maroon bands already were considered dangerous to the Spanish colonists, so they had to carry large armed groups to travel outside the plantations and leaving the large part of the center and north of the island, very mountainous regions, where the Maroons lived (it was so, until 1654 with the conquest of [[Jamaica]] by [[Privateer|Corsairs]] of British Admiral [[William Penn]] and general [[Robert Venables]]). However, due to the discovery of precious metals in South America, the Spanish abandoned their migration to the island of Santo Domingo to emigrate to South America and Mexico in order to get rich, for they did not find much wealth in Santo Domingo. Thus, also abandoned the slave trade, that is, they stopped exporting slaves to the island. This led to the collapse of the colony in poverty.<ref name= UNHCR/> Anyway, during those years, slaves were forced to build a cathedral that in time became the most oldest in America. They build their monastery, first hospital and the [[Alcázar de Colón]]. In the 1540s, the Spanish authorities ordered the African slaves building a wall to defend the city from attacks by pirates who ravaged the islands. They also built the ''Puerta de las Lamentaciones'' (in Spanish: Gate of Mercy).<ref name= antislavery/>
The slaves brought to Santo Domingo came from various parts of Africa and therefore belonged to different cultures. Although in the early days the slaves were Ladino, as traffic and intensified trade and colonial authorities demanded more slave labor for plantations and other housekeeping, were allowed introduction of black "bozales", i.e. slaves imported directly from Africa. In 1522 took place on the island, the first major slave rebellion,<ref name= UNHCR/> rebellion led by 20 Muslims of [[Wolof people|Wolof]] origin, originating from [[Senegal]], in an ingenio (sugar factory) of east of Santo Domingo island<ref name= antislavery/> Many of the insurgents fled to the mountains and established what would become the first autonomous community African [[Maroon (people)|Maroon]] in America.<ref name= UNHCR/> However, after the success of this revolt, slave revolts continued to emerge. So, emerged some leaders of African slaves, although already baptized by the Spanish, as is the case of Juan Vaquero, Diego de Guzmán and Diego del Campo. His rebellion led many slaves to flee their oppressors and establish many communities in the South West, North and East of the island, causing the first arrival of slaves, but free, in the current Haiti (remember that although this part of the island was also Spanish until 1697, when it was sold to France, had no Spanish people living in it). This caused some concern among slaveholders and contributed to the Spanish emigration to other places. Thus, although sugarcane increased profitability in the island, the number of imported slaves who fled into it, continued to rise, mixing with [[Taino people|Taino]] indigenous of these regions. So, in 1530, Maroon bands already were considered dangerous to the Spanish colonists, so they had to carry large armed groups to travel outside the plantations and leaving the large part of the center and north of the island, very mountainous regions, where the Maroons lived (it was so, until 1654 with the conquest of [[Jamaica]] by [[Privateer|Corsairs]] of British Admiral [[William Penn]] and general [[Robert Venables]]). However, due to the discovery of precious metals in South America, the Spanish abandoned their migration to the island of Santo Domingo to emigrate to South America and Mexico in order to get rich, for they did not find much wealth in Santo Domingo. Thus, also abandoned the slave trade, that is, they stopped exporting slaves to the island. This led to the collapse of the colony in poverty.<ref name= UNHCR/> Anyway, during those years, slaves were forced to build a cathedral that in time became the most oldest in America. They build their monastery, first hospital and the [[Alcázar de Colón]]. In the 1540s, the Spanish authorities ordered the African slaves building a wall to defend the city from attacks by pirates who ravaged the islands. They also built the ''Puerta de las Lamentaciones'' (in Spanish: Gate of Mercy).<ref name= antislavery/>

Revision as of 01:30, 4 June 2013

Afro-Dominican
Languages
Dominican Spanish majority  · English (Samana English), minority
Religion
Predominantly Roman Catholicism
minority Protestantism and African traditional religions,
Related ethnic groups
Spanish people, others Afro-Hispanics, Afro-Haitians, African people

Afro-Dominican is a Dominican of total or partial African descent. The term is basically used to refer to blacks and Dominican mulattoes (which are Euro-Afro Dominicans) together. However, the Dominicans of North African (or others of White African) descent, are also Afro-Dominicans, although them are scarce in the Dominican Republic. Most Africans who came to the Dominican Republic arrived from the sixteenth to the nineteenth century because of slavery. Most of them came from West and Central Africa. Currently there are also many black immigrants, particularly Haitians, who can be included within the Afro-Dominican community due to his African roots, if they were born in the country or have Dominican naturalization. Afro-Dominicans are the majority in the country.

History

In 1503, with the conquest and colonization of the island, the Spanish began to import large numbers of African slaves to replace the native labor, greatly reduced by wars, brutal working conditions and epidemics. About 80 or 90% of the native population died in the first century of the conquest. Meanwhile between 1492 and 1870 some 30,000 Africans were imported to the current Dominican territory to be devoted to sugar.[1]

In 1503, arrived the first African slaves to the Española Island, mostly to the present Dominican Republic, since Spain had largely neglected the west of the island. This first slaves were Black "Ladinos", i.e. born in Spain and Christianized[2] and arrived as servants for the home of the island´s Spanish elite.[3] However, the number of slaves imported to the island was already sufficient for developed rebellions and escapes to the mountains by themselves. The rebels Africans lived with the indigenous in shelters away from urban centers.[4] Even so, in 1510, were imported to the island others 250 Ladino slaves[2] and in 1511, arrived others 5.000 African slaves to the shores of the island.[3] In addition, with the establishment of the world's first sugar mill on the Española island in 1516, the importation of African slaves greatly increased.

The slaves brought to Santo Domingo came from various parts of Africa and therefore belonged to different cultures. Although in the early days the slaves were Ladino, as traffic and intensified trade and colonial authorities demanded more slave labor for plantations and other housekeeping, were allowed introduction of black "bozales", i.e. slaves imported directly from Africa. In 1522 took place on the island, the first major slave rebellion,[2] rebellion led by 20 Muslims of Wolof origin, originating from Senegal, in an ingenio (sugar factory) of east of Santo Domingo island[3] Many of the insurgents fled to the mountains and established what would become the first autonomous community African Maroon in America.[2] However, after the success of this revolt, slave revolts continued to emerge. So, emerged some leaders of African slaves, although already baptized by the Spanish, as is the case of Juan Vaquero, Diego de Guzmán and Diego del Campo. His rebellion led many slaves to flee their oppressors and establish many communities in the South West, North and East of the island, causing the first arrival of slaves, but free, in the current Haiti (remember that although this part of the island was also Spanish until 1697, when it was sold to France, had no Spanish people living in it). This caused some concern among slaveholders and contributed to the Spanish emigration to other places. Thus, although sugarcane increased profitability in the island, the number of imported slaves who fled into it, continued to rise, mixing with Taino indigenous of these regions. So, in 1530, Maroon bands already were considered dangerous to the Spanish colonists, so they had to carry large armed groups to travel outside the plantations and leaving the large part of the center and north of the island, very mountainous regions, where the Maroons lived (it was so, until 1654 with the conquest of Jamaica by Corsairs of British Admiral William Penn and general Robert Venables). However, due to the discovery of precious metals in South America, the Spanish abandoned their migration to the island of Santo Domingo to emigrate to South America and Mexico in order to get rich, for they did not find much wealth in Santo Domingo. Thus, also abandoned the slave trade, that is, they stopped exporting slaves to the island. This led to the collapse of the colony in poverty.[2] Anyway, during those years, slaves were forced to build a cathedral that in time became the most oldest in America. They build their monastery, first hospital and the Alcázar de Colón. In the 1540s, the Spanish authorities ordered the African slaves building a wall to defend the city from attacks by pirates who ravaged the islands. They also built the Puerta de las Lamentaciones (in Spanish: Gate of Mercy).[3]

After 1700, with the arrival of new Spanish colonists, African slaves imported was renovated. In both plantations and isolated villages of runaways from east of the island, the population began to focus more on livestock and the importance of racial caste division was reduced, so that began to develop a mix between the Spanish colonists, African slaves and the natives of this part from Santo Domingo.[2] This domain mixing together the social, cultural and economic European element will form the basis of national identity of Dominicans.[5] It is estimated that the population of the colony in 1777 was 400,000, of which 100,000 were Europeans and Criollos, 60,000 African, 100.000 mestizo s, 60,000 Zambos and 100,000 mulatto.[2]

At the end of the eighteenth century, arrived also to Spanish Santo Domingo, fugitive slaves from the French colony of the western part of the island, usually composed of black fugitives, escaped from the rigors of their masters, and that fed the Spanish colony since the time initial establishment of the French on the island. These slaves came directly from Africa, and in some cases they even form communities such as San Lorenzo de Los Mina, who is now district or sector of the city of Santo Domingo. Also, coming slaves from other parts of the West Indies, especially from the Lesser Antilles, dominated by French, English, Dutch, etc.[6]

In 1801 Haitian leader Toussaint Louverture, who had occupied the east of Santo Domingo, the place abolished slavery, as had happened in the west of the island, freeing about 40,000 slaves, and prompting most people who formed the elite of that part of the island flee to Cuba and Puerto Rico. However, when the Spanish recovered it, Spanish Santo Domingo re-established slavery in 1809.[3] During those years, the French governor Ferrand imported a second group of Haitian slaves, brought by in order to use them in founding the Puerto Napoleon (Samana), French colonial enclave. There was no running for the defeat of the French.[7]


The abolition of the slavery was made in 1822, during the Haitian occupation of the Dominican territory, started in February, 1822.[3][6]

Between 1824, began to arrived African American freed people people to Santo Domingo, benefiting from the favorable pro-African immigration policy of Haitian president Jean Pierre Boyer. This settlers were established in Puerto Plata Province and the Samaná Peninsula —then under Haitian administration—benefiting from the favorable pro-African immigration policy of president Jean Pierre Boyer. They were called Samaná Americans.

Later, in 1844, two Afro Dominicans, Francisco del Rosario Sanchez and Ramon Matias Mella, freed the country alongside to Juan Pablo Duarte, of Haitian domain.[6]

More late, between the late nineteenth and early twentieth century, was developed a traffic black workers from the British West Indies in the first third of this century to work in the sugar plantations of the east of the island, and whose descendants are known today with the name of Cocolos.[4]

After, many Haitian people began to settle in the Dominican Republic, a migration that has continued until today.

Origins

Atlantic slave trade

Main article: Atlantic slave trade
Region of Embarkment, 1503-1870 Amount %
Senegambia (Mandinka, Fula, Wolof) 7.9
Sierra Leone (Mende, Temne) 4.5
Windward Coast (Mandé, Kru) 6.7
Gold Coast (Akan, Fon) 5.5
Bight of Benin (Yoruba, Ewe, Fon, Allada and Mahi) 12.4
Bight of Biafra (Igbo, Ibibio) 16.1
West-central Africa (Kongo, Mbundu) 47.0
Southeast Africa (Macua, Malagasy) 0.0
(Unknown) 0.0[8]

The Atlantic slave trade involved nearly all of Africa's west coast inhabitants to be forcibly taken to the new world. Most Dominican slaves tended to come from mostly the Kongo people of West-Central Africa (present-day Angola, Republic of Congo, Cameroon and the Democratic Republic of the Congo), along with the Igbo (originating from west from Nigeria), Yoruba, Akan and Mandinka tribes.

Others African ethnic groups arrived to Spanish Santo Domingo during the slavery´s period were: Wolof (imported from Senegal), Aja (also called Ararás in Santo Domingo and imported from Dahomey, current Benin), Ambundu (from the Kingdom of Ndongo, in north Angola), Bran (originating from Brong-Ahafo Region, west from Ghana), Fulbe, Kalabari (originating from slave port from Calabar, in Nigeria), Terranova (slaves bought probably in Porto Novo, Benin), Zape (originating from Sierra Leone), Bambara and Biafada (this latter was originating from Guinea Bissau) people.

The Wolof were imported to Spanish Santo Domingo from Senegal in the first half of the sixteenth century, until the import of this ethnic group was prohibited after his rebellion in 1522.[2] Many of the slaves were also Ajas, usually taken in Whydah, Benin. The Ajas arrived in Santo Domingo, were well known for having made religious brotherhoods, integrated exclusively for them, as the call San Cosme and San Damian.[9]

Demography

The National Institute of Statistics (INE) does not collect racial data since the Census of 1960.[10] In that census, the ethnic features were obtained by direct observation of the people registered by the enumerator, without any questions asked. About 73% (7,365,700 of people) of the population was classified as mestizo (note that in the 1920, 1935, 1950 and 1960 censuses referred to mixed-race people as mestizo, never as mulatto),[10] 16% was classified as white, 11% was classified as black (1,109,900 of people) and less than 0.1% was classified as yellow.[10]

So based on these figures, the Afro-Dominican are at least, 8,475,600 people in the Dominican Republic (although could have also some White Afro-Dominicans). Although most of Afro-Dominicans are descendants of slaves imported in the country and they speak Spanish, there also two Afro communities that have English as their mother tongue: Samaná Americans and Cocolos. Samaná Americans, descendants, as already we said, of American rebel slaves who entered the country in 1824, because to the favorable pro-African immigration policy of Haitian president Jean Pierre Boyer, constitute the most sizable group of native English speakers in the Dominican Republic and living in Puerto Plata Province and in the Samaná Peninsula. Aware of its distinctive heritage, the community, whose singular culture distinguishes them from the rest of Dominicans, refers to itself as Samaná Americans, and is referred to by fellow Dominicans as "los americanos de Samaná." Another Afro group is the called Cocolo, descendants of those who came to the island from the English-speaking Caribbean to work in the sugar plantations of the east of the island between the late nineteenth and early twentieth century and living in San Pedro de Macoris. It is also important the community of Haitian origin, which is the largest immigrant community in the country and is formed, according to some estimates, by more than 1,100,000 people.[11]

The 1920 Census registered 8,305 Cocolos and 28,258 Haitians.[12]

Haitian Immigration

Haitian immigration is the most important of the immigrations to the Dominican Republic.

The reasons that drive Haitians to migrate to the Dominican Republic are fundamentally the poverty. Haiti is much poorer than the Dominican Republic. So, in 2003, 80% of all Haitians were poor (54% in extreme poverty) and 47.1% were illiterate s. The country of nine million people has a fast-growing population, but over two-thirds of the jobs lack the formal workforce. Haiti's GDP per capita was $ 1,300 in 2008, or less than one-sixth of the Dominican figure.[13] As a result, hundreds of thousands of Haitians have migrated to the Dominican Republic, with some estimates of 800,000 Haitians in the country,[14] while others believe they are more than a million. Usually working in low paid and unskilled in building construction, household cleaning, and in plantations.[15]

Children of illegal Haitian immigrants are often stateless s and they are denied services, as their parents are denied Dominican nationality, and therefore are considered transient residents, due to their illegal status and undocumented, and children often have to choose only Haitian nationality.[16]

A large number of Haitian women, often arriving with several health problems, cross the border to Dominican soil during their last weeks of pregnancy to obtain necessary medical care for childbirth, since Dominican public hospitals are not refuse medical services based on nationality or legal status. Statistics from a hospital in Santo Domingo report that over 22% of births are to mothers.

In 1937, Trujillo, in an event known as the Masacre Perejil (Parsley Massacre), ordered the Army to kill Haitians living on the border because, according it is believed, to his rejection to Haitians due he believed they were of a "inferior race" and his desire to try to stop its massive emigration to his country (however, actually were other factors, both political and economic that led the tyrant to grant enforcement of genocide). The Army killed about 17,000 to 35,000 Haitians over six days, from the night of October 2, 1937 to October 8, 1937. To avoid leaving evidence of the Army's involvement, the soldiers used machete s instead of bullets. The soldiers of Trujillo interrogated anyone with dark skin, using the Shibboleth "parsley" to differentiate Haitians from Dominicans when necessary, the "r" of parsley was difficult pronunciation for Haitians. As a result of the slaughter, the Dominican Republic agreed pay to Haiti the amount of $ 750,000, later reduced to $ 525,000. The genocide sought to be justified on the pretext of fearing infiltration, but was actually also a retaliation, commented on both in national currencies, as well as having been informed by the Military Intelligence Service (the dreaded SIM), the government Haitian cooperating with a plan that sought to overthrow Dominican exiles.

In 2005 Dominican President Leonel Fernández criticized collective expulsions of Haitians were "improperly and inhumane." After a delegation from the United Nations issued a preliminary report stating that it found a profound problem of racism and discrimination against people of Haitian origin, the Chancellor Dominican Carlos Morales Troncoso gave a formal statement saying "Our border with Haiti has its problems, this is our reality, and this must be understood.'s important not to confuse national sovereignty with indifference, and not to confuse security with xenophobia[17] "

After the earthquake that struck Haiti in 2010, the number of Haitians doubled to 2 million, most of them illegally crossed after the border opened for international aid. Human Rights Watch estimated in 70,000 Haitian immigrants legal and 1,930,000 illegal living in Dominican Republic.

Racial discrimination

The colonial and political events in the Dominican Republic, sometimes directed against Black and mulatto Afro Dominicans, have left their mark on this country, causing, apparently, a rejection of many Afro-Dominicans to the "blackness" and preferring the Caucasian origin of most of them (the great majority of Dominicans are mulattoes) that black origin.

So, the reasons that are used to explain the why many Black Afro Dominicans reject their skin color are many: In the Spanish colonial period, the Spanish not only enslaved blacks, but also considered them inferior, in a system of racial stratification, and so they did it know, as in other parts of the Spanish Empire. That idea of black inferiority compared to the white was assumed by the whites and, because of their proslavery and, sometimes aggressive behavior with blacks, eventually would also be assumed by them, into believing, also, that their culture was superior to the cultures them and subjeting them to same (although many Afro-Dominican were able to maintain his cultures). Also, during the rule of Haiti (1822–44), the government of this country developed a black centrism, centrism that Dominicans refused. Moreover, Haitians made them feel to Dominicans as a distinct people racially, culturally and linguistically, while forbidding them to them use their customs. Dictator Rafael Leonidas Trujillo, who ruled between 1930 and 1961, tenaciously promoted the anti-Haitian sentiment and used racial persecution and nationalistic fervor against Haitians. He is considered blamed for creating the many racial categories that avoided the use of the word "black"[18] and, in 1955, he promotes an emigration from Spain to his country for "whiten" the population, increasing the white population over the black population, which he considered inferior.[19]

According to the Afro-Dominican poet Blas Jiménez: Under Trujillo, there was nothing worse than being black.[20]

The practice continued under President Joaquín Balaguer, who often complained that Haitian immigration in the Dominican Republic was the country blackening (remember that most Haitians are black, while Dominicans are mulattos, are lighter skinned). In 1990, he was blamed for blocking the presidential aspirations of leading black candidate José Francisco Peña Gómez, spreading rumors that he was actually Haitian.[21]

Due to these reasons many mulatto Afro-Dominicans prefer to opt only for his Caucasians descent. Many Dominicans, including mulatto, tend to see black only to Haitians and other black immigrant groups in the country. However, the Dominicans consider all of them as Haitians, the largest black immigrant group in the country.

An envoy of the UN in October 2007 found that there was racism against blacks in general, and particularly against Haitians, which proliferate in every segment of Dominican society. According to a study conducted by the Dominican Studies Institute CUNY, about 90% of the contemporary Dominican population has ancestry West and Central Africa in different degrees.[22] However, most Dominicans do not identify themselves as black, in contrast to people of West or Central African descent of other countries. A variety of terms are used to represent a range of skin tones, such as moreno / a, canelo / a Indian / a white dark / a and swarthy / a.

Ramona Hernández, director of the Dominican Studies Institute at City College of New York asserts that the terms were originally a defense against racist: "During the Trujillo regime, people who had dark skin were rejected, so they created their own mechanism to fight against the rejection".

By most estimates, 90 percent of Dominicans are black or mulatto. However, census figures indicate that only 11 percent of the nine million inhabitants of the country is black. Many Dominicans believe that being black is to be Haitian. So, most of Afro-Dominicans tend to describe themselves as any of a dozen racial categories that date back hundreds of years: Indian, burned Indian, dirty Indian or washed, black Indian, cinnamon, moreno or mulatto. But almost never black.[18]

Cultural Contributions

African cultural remnants seen in Santo Domingo in many different aspects: music, dance, magic-religious beliefs, cuisine, economy, entertainment, motor habits, language, etc.

Language

The African influence in the Dominican language is not very significant, but it is still possible to trace many words imported black slave and have entered the popular lexicon. A large part of these words is common to other West Indian countries such as Cuba and Puerto Rico. We cite, among others, the words bemba, bachata, guineo, quimbamba, añangotarse, etc.

Music

Perhaps the greatest influence of African slave observe in music and dance. Such influence comes from the dances, that like the calenda, practiced in Santo Domingo, as elsewhere in America, from the early years of slavery. We must Father Labat, who toured the West Indies in the eighteenth century, a fairly thorough calenda.[4]

This dance derive, according to research by the folklorist Fradique Lizardo, several Dominican popular rhythms. One of the most widespread is the Música de palos (Music of sticks), name that designates both the pace and the membranophones used. National Rhythms with obvious African imprint are sarandunga,[4] Música de Gagá (Ganga´s music, arrived from Haiti), Baile de Palos (dance of Sticks), Música de Congos (Music of Congos), Cantos de Hacha (Songs of axe),[23] los congos, la jaiba (the crab), el chenche matriculado (the chenche enrolled), etc.. The salve, which in the words of the American ethnomusicologist Martha Davis, is the most typical of the traditional genres Dominicans, has two styles: one distinctly Spanish, amétrico and antiphonal, and another polyrhythmic, strongly hybridized between the Spanish and African styles. Among African instruments include los palos (the sticks), balsié, the gallumba, etc.[4]

It is important to also mark other musical instruments Dominicans of African origin such as the Palo mayor (mainmast) and the canoita, los timbales (present in the bachata), also called bongos, and the tambora (Key instrument in the merengue music, the Dominican national dance).[24]

On the other hand, there are also music genres Dominican widespread across the country, whose origin is uncertain, being considered of Spanish and African origin, depending of musicologists and historians. Such is the case of the merengue music. So, Luis Alberti, one of the musicians considered as fathers of Merengue, thinks that the roots of this music genre are purely Spanish. F. Lizardo, Dominican folklorist, by contrast, thinks that this origin is in the Bara tribe of Madagascar, who came to the island in the eighteenth century and brought a dance called Merengue that has spread throughout the Caribbean. A very similar pace, adds Lizardo, arrived today with the Yoruba of Dahomey. In the African polyrhythm was also the Merengue. Also often linked to the origin of Merengue a dance called URPA or UPA, a native of Havana and arrived in the Dominican Republic between 1838 and 1849. The dace sailed through the Caribbean coming to Puerto Rico where he was well received. One of the movements of this dance is called merengue which apparently is the way selected to call the dance, and came to the Dominican Republic where he evolved into the genre of Merengue. However, the Cuban UPA is also a dance whose origin appears to be in West Africa. In fact, in early ls, despite its rise among the masses, the upper class did not accept the Merengue for long, because apparently, their connection with African music. Another cause that weighed on the repudiation and attacks the meringue were literary texts that accompany it, usually risqué.[25] Also, the bachata is a hybrid of the bolero (especially the bolero rhythm) originating in the Dominican Republic with other musical influences of African origin and other styles like the Son, the merengue and the chachachá.[26]

Dominican popular music is closely linked to the religious culture, and is interpreted particularly calls for holy festival, also known as the area of the country, as revelations, candles or sleepless nights. Other popular rhythms are obvious Spanish origin, as mangulina and carabiné.[4]

Religion

Although most of Afro-Dominican are Catholics, magical-religious beliefs prevailing among peasant and popular Dominican layers reflect African Christian syncretism operated since colonial times. The Dominican voodoo is, of Haitian origin obvious, but his features and complex is degraded in Santo Domingo. At Creole Voodoo pantheon have incorporated many native deities or praise. The most characteristic feature is the Dominican voodoo that relates directly to the magical activity. The correspondences between the loa and Catholic saints are similar to the Haitian

The Dominican magic is also a smorgasbord of beliefs and rituals of African and European, especially Spanish latter. Mythical animals as the Baca and Barras from Haiti. The classic witches and characteristics that surround them are Spanish. From Europe comes the superstition of the evil eye, the alleged existence of lugarús (loup-garou) and numerous spells and charms, not to mention most of divination.

Funeral rites contain many features of African descent that are shared with other American countries. A typical example is the baquiní o velorio del angelito.[4]

Institutions and cuisine

In the economic field include various institutions of mutual aid, existing both in the fields and in the cities. In rural areas, these institutions are in the form of groups of farmers who come together to collaborate on certain agricultural tasks such as planting, clearing of forests, land preparation, etc. Are called juntas (boards) o convites and have similar characteristics to Haitian combite closely related to the dokpwe of the Fon people of Dahomey. These tasks are accompanied by songs and musical instruments that serve as encouragement and coordination at work. All board members are required to reciprocate the assistance and collaboration in the work of others. After the day is a festival that is the responsibility of the landowner.[4]

Another institution of mutual aid, of African origin, is revolving credit system that goes by the name of St. corresponding to esusu and Yoruba. As in Nigeria and other parts of Afroamerica, the San is composed preferably female. It consists, as is well known, in the establishment of a common fund to which each participant's San, contributes with a sum monthly or weekly. Each partner receives, on a rotating basis, the total value of the box, starting with the organized.

Dominican cuisine and dishes containing products of African origin. Among the former are the guandul, the ñame and the funde. Typical African dishes seem to be the mofongo, prepared with green bananas and derivatives cocola kitchen, the fungí and the calalú. A common drink among the black slaves was the guarapo, which is derived from sugar cane juice.

Amusements and Language

The Cocolos, descendants of black immigrants from the British West Indies, originated some amusement as the practiced by Buloyas or Guloyas and Momis, both in the eastern town of San Pedro de Macoris. The first, according to general opinion, are groups of masks depicting, although of form very degraded, scenes of biblical battle between David and Goliath. The other is a remnant of the English traditions of Mummer's Play, brought to the Caribbean islands by the British colonial rulers, plays that were staged at Christmas. The Momis, according Martha Davis, have a aspect of carnival which warn African influences, especially in the costumes and the behavior of its members.

Certain playground practiced until recently have been reported by the investigator Veloz Maggiolo as of African origin. They are the fufu, made up of a large button and a thread that goes through two holes of the button, the castanets of sticks, the horn, made from a box of phosphorus and a "cajita" ("little box").

The African influence in the Dominican language is very noticeable, especially in the phonetics, vocabulary and syntax, it is still also possible to trace many words imported black slave and have entered the popular lexicon. Many of these words are common to other West Indian countries such as Cuba and Puerto Rico. We cite, among others, the voices Bemba, bachata, banana, Quimbamba, añangotarse, etc.[4]

Buildings

African slaves were forced to build a cathedral that in time became the most oldest in America. They build their monastery, first hospital and the Alcázar de Colón. In the 1540s, the Spanish authorities ordered the African slaves building a wall to defend the city from attacks by pirates who ravaged the islands. They also built the Puerta de las Lamentaciones (in Spanish: Gate of wailing).[3]

See also

References

  1. ^ La Esclavitud en la América española (in Spanish: Slavery in Spanish America). Written by José Andrés Gallego. Publicated in 2005. Page 19.
  2. ^ a b c d e f g h Minority Rights Group International - MRGI (2007). "World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples - Dominican Republic: Overview". Retrieved June 3, 2011.
  3. ^ a b c d e f g Slave Routes - Americas and Carabbean. Retrieved 03, February 2013, to 1:50pm
  4. ^ a b c d e f g h i Mi país: NOTAS SOBRE LA CULTURA DOMINICANA (in Spanish: Notes respect to the Dominican culture). Posted by Carlos Esteban Deive, from an article published in Boletín del Museo del Hombre Dominicano (in Spanish: Bulletin of the Museum of Dominican Man) - Año VIII, Núm. 12 (Enero 1979). Retrieved December 20, 2012, to 12:55 pm.
  5. ^ PJ Ferbel (2002). .suncaribbean.net / rd_laisla_tiempo_preist_tainos_cultura.htm "Survival of the Taino culture in the Dominican Republic" (in Spanish). www.suncaribbean.net. Retrieved June 3, 2011. {{cite web}}: Check |url= value (help)
  6. ^ a b c Francisco del Rosario Sánchez One of the Padres de la Patria / Fathers of the Patriotism – Colonial Zone-Dominican Republic (DR) – Retrieved 3 November 2012.
  7. ^ La isla. Origen de la población dominicana (in Spanish: Origin of the Dominican population). Retrieved in May 01, 2013, to 01: 10 pm.
  8. ^ African origins in Greater Antilles (from photobucket: African origins in Americas)
  9. ^ El solitario de la vega real: Etnias africanas en la esclavitud en Santo Domingo (in Spanish: The solo of The vega real: Ethnic African slavery in Santo Domingo). Retrieved in 08 February, 2012, to 13:30 pm.
  10. ^ a b c Frank Moya Pons (2010). Historia de la República Dominicana (in Spanish). Vol. 2. Santo Domingo: CSIC. pp. 50–52. {{cite book}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help)
  11. ^ http://www.elmundo.es/america/2010/10/31/noticias/1288556420.html
  12. ^ Historia, Metodología y organización de censos en Rep. Dom.
  13. ^ "CIA - The World Factbook - Haiti
  14. ^ Dominican Republic: Deport Thy (Darker-Skinned) Neighbour
  15. ^ ["Migration in the Caribbean: Haiti, the Dominican Republic and Beyond"]
  16. ^ "Dominican Republic, Haiti, and the United States: Protect rights, reduce statelessness"
  17. ^ Dominican Republic: Gov't Turns Deaf Ear to UN Experts on Racism
  18. ^ a b Diario lider: Afrodominicanos pugnan por su identidad (in Spanish: Leader Journal: Afrodominicans fighting for their identity).
  19. ^ Hernández González, Manuel. La emigración canaria a América (Canary emigration to Americas). Page 27 - 31 and 109 - 110. First Edition January, 2007
  20. ^ Robles, Frances (2007-06-13). "Black denial". A Rising voice: Afro-Latin Americans (in Spanish). Retrieved 2013-05-29.
  21. ^ Franco, Franklin (2005-09-02). "Peña Gómez, Balaguer y el racismo (III)". Hoy (in Spanish). Retrieved 2013-05-29.
  22. ^ "The Tribulations of Blackness: Stages in Dominican Racial Identity". Wrote by Silvio Torres-Saillant
  23. ^ Tradición Musical Afro-Dominicana (in Spanish: Musical Tradition Afro-Dominican). Posted by Jose Radhamés Veras. Retrieved March 21, 2013, to 22:49 pm.
  24. ^ Historia Dominicana. Conferencia: "La discriminación de la cultura africana en la música dominicana" (in Spanish: Dominian History. "Discrimination of African culture in the Dominican music"). Wrote by Alejandro Paulino. General Archive of the Nation, Thursday November 25, 2010.
  25. ^ Opinión sobre el merengue (in Spanish: Opinion on the merengue). Retrieved March 21, 2013, to 01:20 pm.
  26. ^ Buenas tareas(in Spanish: Good tasks)
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