Father Le Loutre's War: Difference between revisions

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Le Loutre and the Acadian refugees to Chignecto struggled to create dykes that would support the new communities. In the first winter of 1749, the Acadians survived on rations waiting for the dykes to be built. Acadians from Minas were a constant support in providing provisions and labour on the dykes. In retaliation for the Acadian and Mi’kmaq [[Raid on Dartmouth (1751)]], the British raided Chignecto destroying the dykes and ruining hundreds of acres of crops.<ref>Faragher, p. 271</ref> Acadians began to defect from the Exodus and made application to return to the British colony.<ref>Faragher, p. 275, 290</ref> Le Loutre immediately sought help from Quebec and then France to support re-building dykes in the area. He returned with success in 1753 and work began on the grand dyking project on riviere Au Lac (present day [[Aulac, New Brunswick|Aulac River, New Brunswick]]).<ref>Faragher, p. 277</ref> Unfortunately, the following year storm tides broke through the main cross-dike of the large-scale reclamation project, destroying nearly everything the Acadians had accomplished in several months of instense work. Again some Acadians tried to defect to the British.<ref>Faragher, p. 291</ref>
Le Loutre and the Acadian refugees to Chignecto struggled to create dykes that would support the new communities. In the first winter of 1749, the Acadians survived on rations waiting for the dykes to be built. Acadians from Minas were a constant support in providing provisions and labour on the dykes. In retaliation for the Acadian and Mi’kmaq [[Raid on Dartmouth (1751)]], the British raided Chignecto destroying the dykes and ruining hundreds of acres of crops.<ref>Faragher, p. 271</ref> Acadians began to defect from the Exodus and made application to return to the British colony.<ref>Faragher, p. 275, 290</ref> Le Loutre immediately sought help from Quebec and then France to support re-building dykes in the area. He returned with success in 1753 and work began on the grand dyking project on riviere Au Lac (present day [[Aulac, New Brunswick|Aulac River, New Brunswick]]).<ref>Faragher, p. 277</ref> Unfortunately, the following year storm tides broke through the main cross-dike of the large-scale reclamation project, destroying nearly everything the Acadians had accomplished in several months of instense work. Again some Acadians tried to defect to the British.<ref>Faragher, p. 291</ref>


In 1753, the British unilaterally established Lunenburg. In the spring, Governor Hopson was recieving warnings from [[Fort Edward (Nova Scotia)|Fort Edward)]] that as many as 300 natives nearby were prepared to oppose the settlement of Lunenburg and intend to attack upon the arrival of settlers.<ref>Patterson, 1994, p. 136</ref>
In 1753, the British unilaterally established Lunenburg, that is, without negogiating with the [[Mi'kmaq people]]. In the spring, Governor Hopson was recieving warnings from [[Fort Edward (Nova Scotia)|Fort Edward]] that as many as 300 natives nearby were prepared to oppose the settlement of Lunenburg and intend to attack upon the arrival of settlers. Supervised by Lawreence and protected by several ships of the British Navy and bot 160 Regular soldiers, protestant settlers established the village. <ref>Patterson, 1994, p. 136</ref>


== Trade (1754)==
== Trade (1754)==

Revision as of 19:34, 18 January 2011

Father Jean-Louis Le Loutre

Father Le Loutre’s War (1749-1755), also known as the Indian War, the Micmac War and the Anglo-Micmac War,[1] happened between King Georges War and the French and Indian War in Acadia and Nova Scotia.[2] The war was fought by the British and New England, primarily under the leadership of New England Ranger John Gorham and British Officer Charles Lawrence. They fought against the Mi'kmaq, Acadians who were led by French priest Jean-Louis Le Loutre. The overall upheaval of the war was unprecedented. Atlantic Canada witnessed more population movements, more fortification construction, and more troop allocations than had ever before been seen in the region.[3]

During Father Le Loutre's War, the British attempted to firmly establish control of the major Acadian settlments in peninsula Nova Scotia and to extend British control to the disputed territory of present-day New Brunswick. The British also wanted to establish protestant communities in Nova Scotia. Throughout the war, the Mi’kmaq and Acadians attacked the British fortification of Nova Scotia and the newly established protestant settlements.[4] Acadians and Mi'kmaq also left Nova Scotia for the French colonies of Ile St. Jean (Prince Edward Island) and Ile Royale (Cape Breton Island). The French also tried to maintain the disputed territory of present-day New Brunswick.

Historical context

Despite the official cessation of war between the English and French Empires, the conflict in Acadia and Nova Scotia continued with the British and New Englanders fighting the Mi’kmaq, Acadians and the French missionary priests. The Mi'kmaq and Acadians were united in their commitment to Catholicism, intermarriage, and the gifts provided by the French to the Mi'kmaq. Despite the British Conquest of Acadia in 1710, the dominant population in Acadia remained Catholic Acadians, who would not sign an unconditional oath to become British subjects. Acadians and Mi’kmaq were often united in their resistance to the British occupation of Acadia (See Historical Context for the Expulsion of the Acadians and Dummer's War). King George's War had just finished and during the war Le Loutre, Gorham and Lawrence rose to prominence in Acadia and Nova Scotia.

Fortification of Acadia and Nova Scotia (1749-1751)

Fort Edward (Nova Scotia) (est. 1750)

The war began when Edward Cornwallis arrived to establish Halifax with 13 transports on June 21, 1749.[5] The British were violating earlier treaties with the Mi'kmaq (1725).[6] The British quickly began to build other settlments. To guard against Mi'kmaq, Acadian and French attacks on the new protestant settlements, British fortifications were erected in Halifax (1749), Dartmouth (1750), Bedford (Fort Sackville) (1751), Lunenburg (1753) and Lawrencetown (1754).

Within 18 months of establishing Halifax, the British also took firm control of peninsula Nova Scotia by building fortifications in all the major Acadian communities: present-day Windsor (Fort Edward); Grand Pre (Fort Vieux Logis) and Chebucto (Fort Lawrence). (A British fort already existed at the other major Acadian centre of Annapolis Royal, Nova Scotia. Cobequid remained without a fort.)

The only land route between Louisbourg and Quebec went from Baie Verte through Chignecto, along the Bay of Fundy and up the St. John River. With the establishment of Halifax, the French recognized at once the threat it represented and that the St. John River corridor might be used to attack Quebec City itself.[7] To protect this vital gateway, at the beginning of 1749, the French strategically constructed three forts within 18 months along the route: one at Baie Vert (Fort Gaspareaux), one at Chignecto (Fort Beausejour) and another at the mouth of the St. John River (Fort Menagoueche).

Acadian Exodus

Main article: Acadian Exodus

With demands for an unconditional oath, the British fortification of Nova Scotia, and the support of French policy, a significant number of Acadians made a stand against the British. On 18 September 1749, a document was delivered to Edward Cornwallis signed by 1000 Acadians from all the major centres. The document stated that they would leave the country before they would sign an unconditional oath.[8] Cornwallis continued to press for the unconditional oath with a deadline of 25 October. In response, hundreds of Acadians began the exodus from Nova Scotia. In fact some Acadians had begun to leave prior to hearing Cornwallis response.[9] The Acadian Exodus involved almost half of the total Acadian population of Nova Scotia deciding to relocate to French controlled territories.[10] The three primary destinations were: the west side of the Mesagoueche River in the Chignectou region, Ile-Saint Jean (Prince Edward Island)and Ile Royale (Cape Breton Island). The leader of the Exodus was Father Jean-Louis Le Loutre, whom the British gave the code name “Moses”.

Battle at Chignecto (1749)

Charles Lawrence

The first military conflict of the war was at the Isthmus of Chignecto. On September 3, 1749 New England Ranger John Gorham led over 700 men to Isthmus of Chignecto. Mi’kmaq and Acadians opposed the landing and killed twenty British. Several Mi’kmaq were killed and they were eventually overwhelmed by the invading force and withdrew, burning their crops and houses as they retreated.[11] On September 18, several Mi'kmaq and Maliseets ambushed and killed three Englishmen at Chignecto. Seven natives were killed in the skirmish.[12]

In May 1750, Lawrence was unsuccessful in establishing himself at Chignecto because Le Loutre burned the village of Beaubassin, thereby preventing Lawrence from using the supplies of the village to establish a fort. Lawrence retreated only to return in September 1750 with a force of 700 men. Le Loutre and Acadian militia leader Joseph Broussard resisted the British assault. The British troops defeated the resistance and began construction of Fort Lawrence near the site of the ruined Acadian village of Beaubassin.[13] The work on the fort proceeded rapidly and the facility was completed within weeks. To limit the British to peninsular Nova Scotia, the French began also to fortify the Chignecto and its approaches, constructing Fort Beausejour and two satellite forts - one at present-day Port Elgin, New Brunswick (Fort Gaspareaux) and the other at present-day Saint John, New Brunswick (Fort Menagoueche).[14]

Raid on Dartmouth (1749)

The Mi'kmaq saw the founding of Halifax without negogiation as a violation of earlier agreements with the British. On 24 September, 1749 the Mi'kmaq formally declared their hostility to the British plans for settlement without more formal negogiations.[15] On September 30, 1749, about forty Mi'kmaq attacked six men who were in Dartmouth, Nova Scotia cutting trees. Four of them were killed on the spot, one was taken prisoner and one escaped.[16] Two of the men were scalped and the heads of the others were cut off. The attack was on the saw mill which was under the command of Major Gilman. Six of his men had been sent to cut wood. Four were killed and one was carried off. The other escaped and gave the alarm. A detachment of rangers was sent after the raiding party and cut off the heads of two Mi'kmaq and scapled one.[17]

The result of the raid, on October 2, 1749, Cornwallis offered a bounty on the head of every Mi'kmaq. He set the amount at the same rate that the Mi'kmaq received from the French for British scalps. As well, to carry out this task, two companies of rangers raised, one led by Major Gilman and the other by Captain William Clapham. These two companies served along side that of John Gorham's company. The three companies scoured the land around Halifax looking for Mi'kmaq.[18] Upon arriving in Halifax (1749), Governor Edward Cornwallis sent troops to Mirligueche (i.e., Lunenburg, Nova Scotia) and had the village destroyed.[19]

Siege of Grand Pre (1749)

Main article: Siege of Grand Pre

Two months later, on November 27, 1749, 300 Mi'kmaq, Maliseet, and Acadians attacked the British Fort Vieux Logis recently established in the Acadian community of Grand Pre. The fort was under the command of Captain Handfield. While surveying the fort's environs, Lieutenant John Hamilton and eighteen soldiers under his command were captured. After the British soldiers were captured, the native and Acadian militias made several attempts over the next week to lay siege to the fort before breaking off the engagement. Gorham’s Rangers was sent to relieve the fort. When he arrived the militia had already departed with the prisoners. The prisoners spent several years in captivity before being ransomed.[20]

Battle at St. Croix (1750)

Main article: Battle at St. Croix

The following spring, on March 18, 1750, John Gorham and his Rangers left Fort Sackville (at present day Bedford, Nova Scotia), under orders from Governor Cornwallis, to march to Piziquid (present day Windsor, Nova Scotia). Gorham's mission was to establish a blockhouse at Piziquid (i.e., Fort Edward), and to seize the property of Acadians who had participated in the Siege of Grand Pre.

Arriving at about noon on March 20 at the Acadian village of Five Houses beside the St. Croix River, Gorham and his men found all the houses deserted. Seeing a group of Mi’kmaq hiding in the bushes on the opposite shore, the Rangers opened fire. The skirmish deteriorated into a siege, with Gorham’s men taking refuge in a sawmill and two of the houses. During the fighting, the Rangers suffered three wounded including Gorham, who sustained a bullet in the thigh. As the fighting intensified, a request was sent back to Fort Sackville for reinforcements.[21]

Responding to the call for assistance on March 22, Governor Cornwallis ordered Captain Clapham’s and Captain St. Loe’s Regiments, equipped with two field guns, to join Gorham at Piziquid. The additional troops and artillery turned the tide for Gorham, and forced the Mi’kmaq to withdraw.[22]

Gorham proceeded to present-day Windsor and forced Acadians to dismantle their church - Notre Dame de l'Assomption - so that Fort Edward could be built in its place.

Raids on Dartmouth (1750-1751)

Main article: Raid on Dartmouth (1751)
File:Joseph Broussard Beausoleil acadian HRoe.jpg
Joseph Broussard (Beausoleil)

In August of 1750, 353 people arrived on the Alderney and began the town of Dartmouth. The town was laid out in the autumn of that year.[23] The following month, on September 30, 1750, Dartmouth was attacked again by the Mi'kmaq and five more residents were killed.[24]

The following spring, on March 26, 1751, the Mi'kmaq attacked again, killing fifteen settlers and wounding seven, three of which would later die of their wounds. They took six captives, and the regulars who pursued the Mi'kmaq fell into an ambush in which they lost a sergeant killed.[25] Two days later, on March 28, 1751, Mi'kmaq abducted another three settlers.[25]

Two months later, on May 13, 1751, Broussard led sixty Mi'kmaq and Acadians to attack Dartmouth again, in what would be known as the "Dartmouth Massacre".[26] Broussard and the others killed twenty settlers - mutilating men, women, children and babies - and took more prisoner.[27] A sergeant was also killed and his body mutilated. They destroyed the buildings. The British returned to Halifax with the scalp of one Mi'kmaq warrior, however, they reported that they killed six Mi'kmaq warriors.[28] Captain William Clapham and sixty soldiers were on duty and fired from the blockhouse.[29] The British killed six Mi'kmaq warriors, but were only able to retrieve one scalp that they took to Halifax.[30] Those at a camp at Dartmouth Cove, led by John Wisdom, assisted the settlers. Upon returning to their camp the next day they found the Mi'kmaq had also raided their camp and taken a prisoner. All the settlers were scalped by the Mi'kmaq. The British took what remained of the bodies to Halifax for burial in the Old Burying Ground.[31]

Raid on Chignecto (1751)

The British retaliated for the raid on Dartmouth by sending several armed companies to Chignecto. A few French defenders were killed and the dikes were breached. Hundreds of acres of crops were ruined which was disastrous for the Acadians and the French troops.[32] In the summer of 1752 Father Le Loutre went to Quebec and then on to France to advocate for supplies to re-build the dikes. He returned in the spring of 1753.

In August 1751, the main British military leader John Gorham left for London and died their in December because of disease. He was succeeded by his younger brother Joseph Gorham. In 1752, the companies raised in 1749 were disbanded, bringing down the strength of the unit to only one company.

Attack at Country Harbour (1753)

On February 21, 1753, nine Mi'kmaq from Nartigouneche (present-day Antigonish, Nova Scotia) in canoes attacked an English vessel at Country Harbour, Nova Scotia. The vessel was from Canso, Nova Scotia and had a crew of four. The Mi'kmaq fired on them and drove them toward the shore. Other natives joined in and boarded the schooner, forcing them to run their vessel into an inlet. The two English men witnessed the Mi'kmaq kill and scalp two of their crew. The Mi'kmaq killed two English men and took two others captive for seven weeks. After seven weeks in captivity, on April 8, the two English men killed six Mi'kmaq and managed to escape.[33]

In response, on the night of April 21 the Mi'kmaq attacked another English schooner in a naval battle between Outique Island and Isle Madame in which the Mi'kmaq attacked an English schooner. There were nine English men and one Acadian who was the pilot. The Mi'kmaq killed the English and let the Acadian off at Port Toulouse, where the Mi'kmaq sank the schooner after looting it.[34]

Grand dyking project on riviere Au Lac (1753)

Le Loutre and the Acadian refugees to Chignecto struggled to create dykes that would support the new communities. In the first winter of 1749, the Acadians survived on rations waiting for the dykes to be built. Acadians from Minas were a constant support in providing provisions and labour on the dykes. In retaliation for the Acadian and Mi’kmaq Raid on Dartmouth (1751), the British raided Chignecto destroying the dykes and ruining hundreds of acres of crops.[35] Acadians began to defect from the Exodus and made application to return to the British colony.[36] Le Loutre immediately sought help from Quebec and then France to support re-building dykes in the area. He returned with success in 1753 and work began on the grand dyking project on riviere Au Lac (present day Aulac River, New Brunswick).[37] Unfortunately, the following year storm tides broke through the main cross-dike of the large-scale reclamation project, destroying nearly everything the Acadians had accomplished in several months of instense work. Again some Acadians tried to defect to the British.[38]

In 1753, the British unilaterally established Lunenburg, that is, without negogiating with the Mi'kmaq people. In the spring, Governor Hopson was recieving warnings from Fort Edward that as many as 300 natives nearby were prepared to oppose the settlement of Lunenburg and intend to attack upon the arrival of settlers. Supervised by Lawreence and protected by several ships of the British Navy and bot 160 Regular soldiers, protestant settlers established the village. [39]

Trade (1754)

During Father Le Loutre's War, Acadians began to refuse to trade with the British. By 1754, no Acadian produce was reaching the Halifax market. While the French pressured some Acadians not to with Halifax, even when British merchants tried to buy directly from Acadians, they were refused. Acadians refused to supply Fort Edward with any firewood.[40] Lawrence saw the need to both neutralize the Acadian military threat. As well, to defeat Louisbourg, the British answer was to destroy the base of supply by deporting the Acadians.[41]

In 1754, the British unilaterally established Lawrencetown.

Battle of Fort Beauséjour (1755)

Main article: Battle of Fort Beauséjour
Fort Beausejour and Cathedral (c.1755)

On May 22, 1755 the British commanded a fleet of three warships and thirty-three transports carrying 2,100 soldiers from Boston, Massachusetts; they landed at Fort Lawrence on June 3, 1755. The following day the British forces attacked Fort Beausejour, and on June 16, 1755 the French forces evacuated to Fort Gaspereaux, arriving at Louisbourg on June 24, 1755.[42]

On the isthmus, they renamed Fort Beausejour as Fort Cumberland and abandoned Fort Lawrence; they recognized the superior construction of Fort Beausejour. Beginning the Acadian expulsion (the Great Upheaval), British forces rounded up French settlers during the Bay of Fundy Campaign (1755). The British deported them and burned their villages at Chignecto to prevent their return. Le Loutre was arrested and imprisoned. Father Le Loutre's War had finished, while the French and Indian War had just begun.


References

  1. ^ Patterson, 1994, p. 130
  2. ^ Grenier p. 138.
  3. ^ John Johnson. French Attitudes Toward Acadians. Du Grand Derangement a La Deportation. p 152
  4. ^ Grenier pp. 154–155.
  5. ^ Thomas Beamish Akins. History of Halifax, Brookhouse Press. 1895. (2002 edition). p 7
  6. ^ Griffith, p. 390; Also see http://www.northeastarch.com/vieux_logis.html
  7. ^ Patterson, 1994, p. 131
  8. ^ Griffith, p. 384; Faragher, p.254
  9. ^ Griffith, p. 388
  10. ^ Johnson, p. 152
  11. ^ Grenier, p. 159
  12. ^ Grenier, p. 149
  13. ^ Hand, p. 20
  14. ^ Hand, p. 25
  15. ^ Griffith, p. 390
  16. ^ Harry Chapman. In the Wake of the Alderney: Dartmouth, Nova Scotia, 1750-2000. Dartmouth Historical Association. 2000. p. 23; John Grenier (2008). The Far Reaches of Empire: War in Nova Scotia, 1710-1760. p.150; For the primary sources that document the Raids on Dartmouth see the Diary of John Salusbury (diarist): Expeditions of Honour: The Journal of John Salusbury in Halifax; also see A genuine narrative of the transactions in Nova Scotia since the settlement, June 1749, till August the 5th, 1751 [microform] : in which the nature, soil, and produce of the country are related, with the particular attempts of the Indians to disturb the colony / by John Wilson. Also see http://www.blupete.com/Hist/NovaScotiaBk1/Part5/Ch07.htm
  17. ^ Thomas Beamish Akins. History of Halifax, Brookhouse Press. 1895. (2002 edition). p 18
  18. ^ Thomas Beamish Akins. History of Halifax, Brookhouse Press. 1895. (2002 edition). p 19; Griffith, p. 391
  19. ^ Grenier, John. The Far Reaches of Empire: War in Nova Scotia, 1710-1760.University of Oklahoma Press, Norman. 2008. Pp. 152
  20. ^ See Faragher 262; Griffith 392; Murdoch, 166-167; Grenier, p. 153; and http://www.northeastarch.com/vieux_logis.html).
  21. ^ Grenier pp. 154-155.
  22. ^ Murdoch p. 174.
  23. ^ Akins, p. 27
  24. ^ John Grenier (2008). The Far Reaches of Empire: War in Nova Scotia, 1710-1760. p.159
  25. ^ a b John Grenier (2008). The Far Reaches of Empire: War in Nova Scotia, 1710-1760. p.160
  26. ^ Atkins, p. 27-28
  27. ^ John Grenier (2008). The Far Reaches of Empire: War in Nova Scotia, 1710-1760. p.160; Cornwallis' official report mentioned that four settlers were killed and six soldiers taken prisoner. See Governor Cornwallis to Board of Trade, letter, June 24, 1751, referenced in Harry Chapman, p. 29; John Wilson reported that fifteen people were killed immediately, seven were wounded, three of whom would die in hospital; six were carried away and never seen again" (See A genuine narrative of the transactions in Nova Scotia since the settlement, June 1749, till August the 5th, 1751 [microform] : in which the nature, soil, and produce of the country are related, with the particular attempts of the Indians to disturb the colony / by John Wilson
  28. ^ See annonmous private letter printed by Harry Chapman, p. 30.
  29. ^ Akins, p. 27-28
  30. ^ See anonymous private letter printed by Harry Chapman, p. 30.
  31. ^ A genuine narrative of the transactions in Nova Scotia since the settlement, June 1749, till August the 5th, 1751 [microform] : in which the nature, soil, and produce of the country are related, with the particular attempts of the Indians to disturb the colony / by John Wilson; Harry Chapman, p. 29; Douglas William Trider list the 34 people who who were buried in Halifax between May 13 - June 15, 1751. Four of whom were soldiers. (See History of Halifax and Dartmouth Harbour: 1415-1800. vol. 1, p. 69).
  32. ^ Faragher, p. 272
  33. ^ Ruth Whitehead, The Old Man Told Us. p. 137; Stephen Patterson reports the attack happened on the coast between Country Harbour and Tor Bay (See Stephen Patterson. "Indian-White Relations in Nova Scotia, 1749-1761". Buckner, P et al (eds.) The Acadiensis Reader: Volume One: Atlantic Canada Before Confederation. Acadinsis Press. 1998. p. 97.) Whitehead reports the location was an little harbour to the westward of Torbay, "Martingo", "port of Mocodome"; Whitehead, p. 137. Beamish Murdoch in A history of Nova-Scotia, or Acadie, Volume 1p. 410 identifies Mocodome as present-day "Country Harbour". The Mi'kmaq claimed the English schooner accidentally was shipwrecked, some of the crew drowned. They also indicated that two men died of illness while the other killed the six Mi'kmaq despite their hospitality. The French officials did not believe the Mi'kmaq account of events.
  34. ^ Whitehead, p. 137
  35. ^ Faragher, p. 271
  36. ^ Faragher, p. 275, 290
  37. ^ Faragher, p. 277
  38. ^ Faragher, p. 291
  39. ^ Patterson, 1994, p. 136
  40. ^ Stephen Patterson. Colonial Wars and Aborigial Peoples. University of Toronto Press. p. 142
  41. ^ Stephen E. Patterson. "Indian-White Relations in Nova Scotia, 1749-61: A Study in Political Interaction." Buckner, P, Campbell, G. and Frank, D. (eds). The Acadiensis Reader Vol 1: Atlantic Canada Before Confederation. 1998. pp.105-106.; Also see Stephen Patterson, Colonial Wars and Aboriginal Peoples, p. 144.
  42. ^ They moved onward to Fortress Louisbourg where they were re-garrisoned on July 6, 1755. This battle proved to be one of the key victories for the British in the Seven Years' War, in which Great Britain gained control of all of New France and Acadia.

Literature cited

  • Faragher, John. Great and Noble Scheme. New York: Norton, 2005.
  • Grenier, John. The Far Reaches of Empire. War in Nova Scotia, 1710-1760. Norman: U of Oklahoma P, 2008. pp. 154–155
  • Griffiths, Naomi Elizabeth Saundaus. From Migrant to Acadian: A North American border people, 1604-1755. Montreal, Kingston: McGill-Queen's UP, 2005.
  • Landry, Peter. The Lion & The Lily. Vol. 1. Victoria: Trafford, 2007.
  • Murdoch, Beamish. A History of Nova Scotia, Or Acadia. Vol 2. LaVergne: BiblioBazaar, 2009. pp. 166-167
  • Patterson, Stephen E. 1744-1763: Colonial Wars and Aboriginal Peoples. In Phillip Buckner and John Reid (eds.) The Atlantic Region to Conderation: A History. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. 1994. pp.125-155
  • Rompkey, Ronald, ed. Expeditions of Honour: The Journal of John Salusbury in Halifax, Nova Scotia, 1749-53. Newark: U of Delaware P, Newark, 1982.

External links

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