Expulsion of the Acadians

St. John River Campaign: Raid on Grimrose (present day Gagetown, New Brunswick). This is the only contemporaneous image of the Expulsion of the Acadians

The Expulsion of the Acadians (also known as the Great Upheaval, the Great Expulsion, The Deportation, the Acadian Expulsion, Le Grand Dérangement) was the forced removal of the Acadian people from present day Canadian Maritime provinces — Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and Prince Edward Island (an area known as Acadie to the French). The Expulsion occurred during the French and Indian War. They were deported to other British colonies, Britain, and France, between 1755 and 1763.

The British Conquest of Acadia happened in 1710. Over the next forty-five years the Acadians refused to sign an unconditional oath of allegiance to Britain. During this time period Acadians participated in various militia operations against the British and maintained vital supply lines to the French Fortress of Louisbourg and Fort Beausejour. During the French and Indian War, the British sought to neutralize any military threat Acadians posed and to interrupt the vital supply lines Acadians provided to Louisbourg by deporting Acadians from Acadia.

Without making distinctions between the Acadians who had been peaceful and those who rebelled against the British occupation, the expulsion of all the Acadians was ordered by British governor Charles Lawrence and the Nova Scotia Council. It led to the deaths of thousands of Acadians. One historian compared this event to a contemporary ethnic cleansing while other historians have suggested the event is comparable with other deportations in history.

Historical context

Main articles: French and Indian Wars and French and Indian War

The Acadian removal occurred during the French and Indian War, which was the fourth and final of the French and Indian Wars between the French and the English for hegemony of North America north of the Gulf of Mexico. After the initial Conquest of Acadia, during Queen Anne's War, Catholic Acadians remained the dominant population in Acadia for the next fifty years. Their allegiance to the British was determined largely by how close they lived to the capital Annapolis Royal. The closer the Acadians were to Louisbourg, the more their resistance to the British was evident.

Acadian Political Resistance

After the British officially gained control of Acadia in 1713, the Acadians refused to sign an unconditional oath to be British subjects. Instead, they negogiated a conditional oath that promised neutrality. Many Acadians may have signed an unconditional oath to the British monarchy had the circumstances been better, while other Acadians did not sign because they were clearly anti-British. For the Acadians who may have signed an unconditional oath, there were numerous reasons why they did not. The difficulty was partly religious, in that the British monarch was the head of the (Protestant) Church of England. Another significant issue was that an oath might commit male Acadains to fight against France ina a future war. A related concern was whether their Mi'kmaq neighbours might percieve this as acknowledging the British claim to Acadia rather than the Mi'kmaq. As a result, signing an unconditional oath might have put Acadian villages in dangers of attack from Mi'kmaq.

Some Acadians unwillingness to sign an unconditional oath to become British subjects reflected their resistance to any British rule. Various historians have observed that many Acadians were labeled "neutral" when they were not. The Acadians either ignored these demands for an unconditional oath or attempted to negotiate the terms by asking that they be exempted from taking up arms against their former countrymen during any event of war between Britain and France. After King Georges War in 1744, many English-speakers began calling the Acadians "French neutral," and that label would remain in common use through the 1750s. For many, however, this term was used as a sarcastic term of derision. This stance led to the Acadians becoming known at times as the "neutral French"." In 1749, Governor Cornwallis again asked the Acadians to take the oath. Although unsuccessful, he took no drastic action. The following governor, Peregrine Hopson, continued the conciliatory policy for the Acadians.

Another example of political resistance was the Acadian exodus from mainland Nova Scotia prior to the expulsion. From 1750-55, there was massive Acadian migration out of British occupied mainland Nova Scotia and into French occupied New Brunswick, PEI and Cape Breton. While some Acadians were forced to leave, for other Acadians leaving British occupied territory for French occupied territory was an act of resistance to the British occupation. On one occasion, for example, a British naval patrol intercepted Acadians in a vessel making their way to Ile St. Jean and an Acadian passengers declared "they chose rather to quit their lands and estates than possess them upon the terms propos'd by the English governor."

Another example of political resistance was Acadian refusal to trade with the British. By 1754, no Acadian produce was reaching the Halifax market. When British merchants tried to buy directly from Acadians, they were refused. Acadians refused to supply Fort Edward with any firewood. Lawrence saw the need to both neutralize the Acadian military threat. As well, to defeat Louisbourg, the British answer was to destroy the base of supply by deporting the Acadians.

Acadian and Native Armed Resistance

File:Joseph Broussard Beausoleil acadian HRoe.jpg

Joseph Broussard ("Beausoleil"). Artist Herb Roe

By the time of the Expulsion of the Acadians, there was already a long history of Acadian, Mi’kmaq and Maliseet resistance to the British occupation of Acadia - both politically and militarily. The Mi'kmaq and the Acadians were allies through their religious connection to Catholicism and through numerous inter-marriages. The Mi'kmaq held the military strength in Acadia even after the conquest of 1710. They primarily resisted the British occupation of Acadia and were joined in their efforts on numerous occasions by Acadians. The military conflicts involving New France and its native allies against New England and its native allies involved the killing of men, women, children and infants on both sides of the conflict. This "frontier warfare" extended into Acadia during King Georges War with the arrival of the Rangers from New England. Examples of Mi'kmaq, Acadians and Maliseet engaging in frontier warfare are their raids on protestant British settlements of Dartmouth and Lunenburg when they were first established. The escalation of this type of warfare eventually led to the indiscriminate removal of all Acadians - combatants and non-combatants - from Acadia.

Before the British Conquest of Acadia in 1710, Acadians fought against the English occupation. While many Acadians traded with the New England protestants, they seem to have been reluctant to be ruled by them. During King William's War, the crews of the very successful French privateer Pierre Maisonnat dit Baptiste were primarily Acadian. The Acadians resisted during the Raid on Chignecto (1696). During Queen Anne's War, Mi’kmaq and Acadians resisted during the Raid on Grand Pré, Piziquid and Chignecto in 1704. Acadians joined French privateer Pierre Maisonnat dit Baptiste as crew members in his victories over many British vessels. The Acadians also assisted the French in protecting the capital in the Siege of Port Royal (1707) and the final Conquest of Acadia. The Acadians and Mi’kmaq were also successful in the Battle of Bloody Creek (1711).

During Dummer's War, the Maliseet raided numerous vessels on the Bay of Fundy while the Mi'kmaq engaged in the Raid on Canso, Nova Scotia (1723). In the latter engagement, the Mi'kmaq were aided by Acadians. During King George's War, Abbe Jean-Louis Le Loutre led many efforts which involved both Acadians and Mi’kmaq to recapture the capital such as the Siege of Annapolis Royal (1744). During this Siege, French officer Marin had taken British prisoners and stopped with them further up the bay at Cobequid. While at Cobequid, an Acadian said that the French soldiers should have "left their [the English] carcasses behind and brought their skins." Le Loutre was also joined by prominent Acadian resistance leader Joseph Broussard (Beausoleil). Broussard and other Acadians were involved in supporting the French soldiers in the Battle of Grand Pré.

After the official War, the conflict continued. The Mi'kmaq attacked New England Rangers in the Siege of Grand Pre and Battle at St. Croix. Upon the founding of Dartmouth, Nova Scotia, Broussard and the Mi'kmaq conducted numerous raids on the village, such as the Raid on Dartmouth (1751), to try to stop the Protestants migration into Nova Scotia. Similarly, during the French and Indian War, Mi’kmaq, Acadians and Maliseet also engaged in numerous raids on Lunenburg, Nova Scotia to stop the migration, such as the Raid on Lunenburg (1756). Le Loutre and Broussard also worked together to resist the British occupation of Chignecto (1750) and then later they fought together with Acadians in the Battle of Beausejour (1755). (As early as the summer of 1751, La Valiere reported, approximately 250 Acadians had already enrolled in the local militia at Fort Beausejour.) The Native and Acadians were also victorious at the Battle of Petitcodiac, Raid on Lunenburg (1756) and the Battle of Bloody Creek (1757).

When Charles Lawrence took over the post following Hopson’s return to England, he took a stronger stance. He was not only a government official but a military leader for the region. Lawrence came up with a military solution for the forty-five years of an unsettled British conquest of Acadia. The French and Indian War (and Seven Years' War in Europe) began in 1754. Lawrence's primary objectives in Acadia were to defeat the French fortifications at Beausejour and Louisbourg. The British saw many Acadians as a military threat in their allegiance to the French and Mi'kmaq. The British also wanted to interrupt the Acadian supply lines to Fortress Louisbourg, which, in turn, supplied the Mi'kmaq.

Deportation

Bay of Fundy (1755)

Main article: Bay of Fundy Campaign (1755)

The first wave of the expulsion began with the Bay of Fundy Campaign (1755) during the French and Indian War. The British ordered the Expulsion of the Acadians from Acadia after the Battle of Beausejour (1755). The Campaign started at Chignecto and then quickly moved to Grand Pre, Piziquid (Falmouth/ Windsor, Nova Scotia) and finally Annapolis Royal.

Cape Sable Island

In July 1758, Acadians were deported from Cape Sable Island.

Ile St. Jean and Ile Royale

Main article: Ile Saint-Jean Campaign

The second wave of the Deportation began with the defeat at the Siege of Louisbourg (1758). Thousands of Acadians were deported from Ile Saint-Jean (Prince Edward Island) and Ile Royale (Cape Breton). The Ile Saint-Jean Campaign saw the largest percentage of deaths of the Acadians deported. The single largest number of deaths during the Deportation happened with the sinking of the Duke William. By the time the second wave of the expulsion had begun the policy of relocating the Catholic, French-speaking coloinists to the thirteen coloines had been discarded as a failure. The Acadians were then deported directly to France.

In 1758, hundreds of Ile Royale Acadians fled to one of Boishebert's refugee camps south of Baie des Chaleurs.

New Brunswick

Main articles: Petitcodiac River Campaign, St. John River Campaign, and Gulf of St. Lawrence Campaign (1758)

On November 17, 1755, during the Bay of Fundy Campaign (1755) at Chignecto, George Scott took seven hundred troops and attacked twenty houses at Memramcook. They arrested the Acadians that remained and killed two hundred head of livestock. Many Acadians had tried to escape the Expulsion by retreating to St. John River, Petitcodiac River and the Miramichi in New Brunswick. The British cleared the Acadians from these areas in the St. John River Campaign, Petitcodiac River Campaign and the Gulf of St. Lawrence Campaign (1758).

There were approximately 23,000 Acadians before the deportation according to provincial records, but based on British records, only an estimated 10,000 survived. Approximately 5,000 to 6,000 Acadians escaped to Quebec, hid among the Mi'kmaq, or were able to hide in the countryside and avoid deportation until the situation settled down.

Following the Battle of Restigouche the previous year, in late 1761, Captain Roderick Mackenzie and his force capture over 330 Acadians at Boishebert's camp on the Restigouche River.

Acadian and Mi’kmaq Resistance

Marquis de Boishébert - Charles Deschamps de Boishébert et de Raffetot (1753)

With the Expulsion of the Acadians during the French and Indian War, the Mi’kmaq and Acadian resistance intensified. After the Expulsion began, much of the resistance was lead by Charles Deschamps de Boishébert et de Raffetot. The Acadians and Mi’kmaq again engaged victoriously in the Battle of Petitcodiac (1755) and the Battle of Bloody Creek (1757). Acadians who were being deported from Annapolis Royal, Nova Scotia on the ship Pembroke defeated the British crew and sailed to land. There was also resistance during the St. John River Campaign. Boishebert also ordered the Raid on Lunenburg (1756).

British Colonies

The British governor of Nova Scotia, Charles Lawrence was a key orchestrator of le Grand Dérangement. The Deportation was to involve sending Acadians from the colony and dispersing them amongst the thirteen others from Massachusetts to Georgia. The Acadians had no knowledge of these intended destinations when they were deported that October of 1755. In a correspondence Lawrence wrote that the Acadians must “be kept in the dark as to their destination.” The British feared a dispersal of Acadians that would strengthen the populations of other French possessions in the maritimes such as Louisbourg or Ile Saint-Jean. Despite claims that the Acadians would be considered officially French “prisoners of war” and “Subjects of the King of France,” promises that they were to be sent to France were mere fabrications. In a speech he gave to his council he planned to “divide [the Acadians] among the colonies…as they cannot easily collect themselves together again.”

The colonies were required to provide shelter and food for the deportees. Each colony handled the situation differently, and due to legislation passed in some colonies, the Acadians' children were treated as orphans and lodged in the homes of families willing to provide for them. These children gained better prospects of actually surviving once removed to Protestant colonial families, but their cultural assimilation was almost certain. These children and their families were the victims of an ethnic cleansing attempt at elimination of the Acadian ethnicity through coercive assimilation. Even today, many of their Acadian descendants bear Anglo-American adopted names, and remain in the same regions, oblivious to their true heritage.

Destinations for deported Acadians

Colony	# of Exiles
Massachusetts	2000
Virginia	1100
Maryland	1000
Connecticut	700
Pennsylvania	500
North Carolina	500
South Carolina	500
Georgia	400
New York	250
TOTAL	6950
England	866
France	3,500
TOTAL	11, 316

Maryland

The deportees in Maryland received the best treatment of those deported in part due to the Acadians' shared religion with the colonists of Maryland. In Maryland fellow Catholics from Ireland greeted over 900 Acadian deportees. The local newspaper requested the Acadians be shown “Christian charity.” The charity was intended as private aid and no government sanctioned relief was offered. The Acadians in Maryland tended to fare well in relation to their kin in the other colonies with a substantial portion of them residing in a Baltimore suburb known as Frenchtown. Yet, even in Catholic Maryland private charity was inadequate and some groups went without shelter. Less than a year after le Grand Dérangement, legislation was passed in Maryland, which authorized the imprisonment of homeless Acadians and the “binding out” of their children to other families.

Massachusetts

Approximately one thousand exiles were disembarked in Massachusetts. Some of these were from vessels bound for South Carolina which were forced into Boston due to storms and their sorry state of insufficient food, overcrowding, and polluted water. Many of these Acadians, however, had wandered in on a fugitive trek in an attempt to find their native land or their separated families. In response, the Massachusetts government issued severe penalties for vagabond Acadians, which included imprisonment, fining, and public whipping of both men and women. Here, as in the other colonies, children were stripped from their families. For Acadians who chose to remain in the districts of Massachusetts to which they had been distributed by the local government, housing and food would be provided at public expense, but they were expected to be able to support themselves within the year.

Connecticut

To some colonies no warning was given of the hundreds of destitute Acadians which would suddenly appear. Others received warning, but Connecticut was the only one to have made preparations for any sort of reception. Like Maryland, the people of Connecticut made attempts at goodwill, and the legislature declared that “[the Acadians] be made welcome, helped and settled under the most advantageous conditions, or if they have to be sent away, measures be taken for their transfer.” Connecticut followed Massachusetts’ lead in enacting legislation forbidding itinerant Acadians. The Acadians suffered from forced servitude, loss of religious freedom, separation of families, and the inability to leave their designated locations under pain of heavy penalties. All of this has led at least one scholar to describe their state as “the worst type of slavery imaginable.”

Pennsylvania and Virginia

In colonies such as Pennsylvania the exiles were refused permission to land and were forced to remain on their vessels for months. Before they were finally allowed off their ships, many were already dead or dying from disease, and they faced the same harsh treatment as Acadians in the other colonies. Likewise, Virginia refused to accept the Acadians on grounds that no notice was given of their arrival. They were never given permission to land. The Virginians considered them a nuisance and ultimately had them sent to England as prisoners of war.

Carolinas and Georgia

Some colonies allowed only the first ships to disembark, while forcing the other ships to continue southward. As a result, a large number of Acadians descended upon the southern colonies of the Carolinas and Georgia. Lawrence intended some Acadians to be sent south, notably those of the Beaubassin region since they were “guilty of rebellion” due to their reluctant defense of Fort Beausejour. Yet, it was only these “special prisoners” sent in shackles that were meant to be sent so far south. Despite this, about a third of the exiles of 1755 found their way to South Carolina. The governments of these colonies eventually allowed the Acadians to land. In Georgia the governor at first officially refused to allow their disembarkation, but he was ignored. These Acadians were “subsidized” and put to work on plantations along with slaves.

We learn from an Army Chaplain by the name of Father Robin that memories which he recalled of l’Acadie were “too dearly vivid, and [the Acadians] burst into tears.” The Acadians who arrived in the most southern colonies, however, found the least difficulty in attempting to return to Acadia. In Georgia and the Carolinas they found governors with little desire to deal with them. Under the leadership of Jacques Maurice Vigneau of Baie Verte, the majority of the Acadians in Georgia received a passport from the governor. Without such passports travel between borders was not allowed. The governors of these southern colonies, so removed from the struggle with the French in Canada, most likely felt as though they were shouldering the burden of Lawrence’s problem. Thus, it is unsurprising they were so willing to issue passports. As soon as the Acadians from Georgia made it to the Carolinas bearing a passport, the governor there realized the solution to his own problem. He quickly followed suit in delivering passports to the Acadians in his own colony. Along with these issuances the Acadians were given two vessels, which were hardly seaworthy. This does not necessarily entail a gesture of goodwill on behalf of the colonies or intent to have the Acadians sent back to Acadia, but it represented a strong desire to have them gone. After running aground numerous times in the faulty ships followed by work, some Acadians did make it back to the Bay of Fundy. Along the way many were captured, despite their legitimate passports, and were imprisoned. Of those who made it to Acadia only 900 remained, less than half who had begun the voyage.

These were not the only Acadians to find their way back home. We read in the South Carolina Gazette that in February about thirty Acadians fled the island to which they were confined and escaped their pursuers. The “special prisoners” sent in chains to the Carolinas were unlikely to be granted permission to leave as the other Acadians would a few months later; and this refusal perhaps forced them to such desperate measure. Alexandre Broussard, brother of the famed resistance leader Joseph Broussard, dit Beausoleil, was among these Acadians. About a dozen are recorded to have returned to Acadia after an incredible overland journey of 1,400 leagues. Such Acadians returning to the homeland are exceptions and represent an exceedingly small number. The majority of Acadians would find such returns impossible to attempt.

France and England

Mémorial des Acadiens de Nantes

The Acadians who found themselves back in the Old World hardly fared better than their kin in North America. In fact, many deported to France never reached their destination. Three hundred and sixty died when the transport ship Duke William sank as did the Violet and Ruby in 1758 en route from Île St.-Jean to France.[61] About 3,000 eventually gathered in France’s port cities, many wound up in Nantes.[62] Of these, 2,000 had been sent directly from Nova Scotia by Charles Lawrence. The others were those unlucky Acadians sent to Britain by the Virginians as prisoners of war. Due to lack of preparation on the part of the British government these Acadians were required to wait three days on wharves with no shelter during the winter.[63] They were then distributed to districts in segregated quarters in cities along England’s coast.[64] These prisoners were eventually repatriated through the work of France’s minister to England, Louis Jules Mancini Mazarini, Duke of Nivernais, Grandee of Spain, Knight of the King, and Peer of France. When the Duke first encountered the Acadian prisoners he found them to be aloof and distrustful. Yet, realizing that “their loyalty [was] only equaled by their suffering for their country” he considered it his duty to rescue them.[65] Unfortunately, the Acadians in England had heard rumors that the exiles sent directly to France were ignored and allowed to starve at the docks. So, despite their staunch patriotism, the Acadians fell victim to propaganda and at first feared to return to France.[66] Once in France, the Acadians soon began to discover their fear of being treated poorly by the motherland was being realized.[67] Many plans were proposed concerning the Acadian question, but most were simply schemes to get them out of France, in which they would be subjected to “high rents, sterile lands, and unhealthy climates.”[68] The Caribbean possessions were unfit colonies for the Acadians given the overwhelming presence of landed plantation owners. These colonies could spare no land for the poor Acadian yeomen.[69] After a failed attempt at colonizing the Falkland Islands, these Acadians were eventually given barren land in France to colonize.[70] This land, named by them La Grand’ Ligne, or the King’s Highway, gave no harvest for two years. The failure of their colony, Poitou, “threw the Acadians of France into a state of idleness, discouragement, and uncertainty.”[71] Following the Treaty of Paris 1763 many Acadians were repatriated in Belle Ile de Mer exchanged by the French for Nova Scotia; their descendants today occupy this idyllic island community off the western coast of Brittany.

Louisiana

These, and many other Acadians, would find themselves welcome in Louisiana which was then owned by Spain. Though no Acadians were sent directly to Louisiana by Lawrence, many did make their way there. The transfer of Louisiana to the Spanish government was done secretly in 1762. As a result of this secrecy, many falsely believed they were relocating to a colony under the dominion of France. Regardless, the Acadians were allowed to continue their lives with little change once there. Some names were changed to Spanish, and French priests were replaced with Spanish Capucins, but the good relations between the two nations, and their common Catholic religion resulted in many Acadians choosing to take oaths of allegiance to the new government. Soon the Acadians comprised the largest ethnic group within Louisiana.

Over the next several decades, many other Acadians moved down the North American east coast, landing temporarily in New England, the Carolinas and other ports, with a large number eventually settling in Louisiana, then controlled by Spain. Spanish authorities welcomed the Catholic Acadians as settlers, first in areas along the Mississippi River, then later in the Atchafalaya Basin and in the prairie lands to the west, a region later renamed Acadiana. During the 19th century, as Acadians reestablished their culture, "Acadian" was elided locally into "Cajun."

Over 200 years after the expulsion from Nova Scotia, there live more than 400,000 descendants of the Acadians in Louisiana. There are many Acadian descendants scattered throughout the globe, but it is that area of Louisiana now known as Acadiana where we find one of the largest collections of Acadians to have managed to maintain their national and cultural identity.

New Brunswick

Not all Acadians were deported by the British. A large number of Acadians fled overland, aided by their Mi'kmaq allies, and resettled in the colonies of New France, present-day Québec and New Brunswick. There was also a small guerrilla resistance led by Joseph Broussard, known as "Beausoleil". Others returned and settled in the region of Fort Sainte-Anne, now Fredericton, and were displaced again by the arrival of Loyalists during and after the American Revolution. In 1785 they created the first colony in the Upper Saint John River valley, near what is now Edmundston.

Many of the deportees succumbed to disease after their removal from Nova Scotia and southeastern New Brunswick. When the vessels carrying the Acadians to Philadelphia reached Delaware in November 1755, it was discovered that smallpox had broken out among them. Many subsequently perished, despite efforts of local Quakers to assist. An outbreak of smallpox also claimed some of those who found refuge at Quebec, then still under French rule. Those who went to the West Indies, in particular, suffered from the change in climate and endemic infectious disease, and many died of fever.

The British burned the homes and farms around the Bay of Fundy and in the St. John River Campaign. Acadian lands initially remained devoid of white settlement owing to the dangers of frontier conflict during the Seven Years War, but beginning in 1760, most former Acadian farms were resettled by English-speaking Protestant colonists, largely New England planters and in other locations by Highland Scots emigrating as a result of the Highland Clearances. However beginning in the 1770s, many Acadians were encouraged to return through the policies of Nova Scotia Governor Michael Francklin who guaranteed Catholic worship, land grants and issued a promise that there would be no second expulsion. However the most fertile Acadian lands had been settled by New England planters and returning Acadians had to settle in other parts of Nova Scotia and New Brunswick creating islands of largely French-speaking communities, such as Chéticamp where some descendants intermingled with those of the Scots migration.

Commemorations

• American poet Henry Wadsworth Longfellow published a long, narrative poem about the plight of the Acadians called Evangeline in 1847. The Evangeline Oak is a tourist attraction in Louisiana.
• The song "Acadian Driftwood", recorded in 1975 by The Band, portrays the Great Upheaval and the displacement of the Acadian people.
• The author Antonine Maillet wrote a novel about the aftermath of the Great Upheaval, Pélagie-la-Charrette. The novel was awarded the Prix Goncourt in 1979.
• Grand-Pré Park, situated in present-day Grand-Pré, Nova Scotia is now a National Historic Site of Canada. It has been preserved as a living monument to the Expulsion, complete with a memorial church and a statue of Evangeline, the subject and title of Henry Wadsworth Longfellow's stirring poem on the experience.
• In December 2003, Governor General Adrienne Clarkson, representing Canada's Monarch, Queen Elizabeth II, declared the Crown's acknowledgement of (but did not apologise for) the Expulsion. She designated July 28 as "A Day of Commemoration of the Great Upheaval." This proclamation, often referred to as the Royal Proclamation of 2003, closed one of the longest open cases in the history of the British courts, initiated when the Acadian representatives first presented their grievances of forced dispossession of land, property and livestock in 1760.
• There remain in Nova Scotia a number of villages that have retained their original Acadian names, such as Noel, Nova Scotia.
• December 13, the day the Duke William sank during the Expulsion, is commemorated every year as the Acadian Rememberance Day
• There is a museum dedicated to Acadian history and culture, including detailed reconstruction of the Great Uprising, in the town of Bonaventure, Quebec[1]

References

English

• Brenda Dunn, A History of Port-Royal/Annapolis Royal 1605-1800, Halifax: Nimbus, 2004.
• Griffiths, E. From Migrant to Acadian. McGill-Queen's University Press. 2005.
• John Grenier. The Far Reaches of Empire: War in Nova Scotia, 1710-1760. Oklahoma University Press. 2008.
• John Reid, Maurice Basque, Elizabeth Mancke, Barry Moody, Geoffrey Plank, and William Wicken. 2004. The 'Conquest' of Acadia, 1710: Imperial, Colonial, an Aboriginal Constructions. University of Toronto Press. 2004.
• Geoffrey Plank, An Unsettled Conquest. University of Pennsylvania. 2001
• Faragher, John Mack (2005). A Great and Noble Scheme: The Tragic Story of the Expulsion of the French Acadians from their American Homeland, New York: W.W. Norton, 562 pages ISBN 0-393-05135-8 (online excerpt)
• Jobb, Dean (2005). The Acadians: A people's story of exile and triumph, Mississauga (Ont.): John Wiley & Sons Canada, 296 p. ISBN 0-470-83610-5
• Moody, Barry (1981). The Acadians, Toronto: Grolier. 96 pages ISBN 0717218104
• Rosemary Neering, Stan Garrod (1976). Life in Acadia, Toronto: Fitzhenry and Whiteside. ISBN 0889021805
• Belliveau, Pierre (1972). French neutrals in Massachusetts; the story of Acadians rounded up by soldiers from Massachusetts and their captivity in the Bay Province, 1755-1766, Boston : Kirk S. Giffen, 259 p.
• Griffiths, N.E.S. (1969). The Acadian deportation: deliberate perfidy or cruel necessity?, Toronto: Copp Clark Pub. Co., 165 p.
• Doughty, Arthur G. (1916). The Acadian Exiles. A Chronicle of the Land of Evangeline, Toronto: Glasgow, Brook & Co. 178 pages (online)
• Government of Nova Scotia transcripts from Journal of John Winslow
• [2] Text of Charles Lawrence's orders to Captain John Handfield

French

• LeBlanc, Ronnie-Gilles, ed. (2005). Du Grand dérangement à la Déportation : nouvelles perspectives historiques, Moncton: Chaire d'études acadiennes, Université de Moncton, 465 p.
• Arsenault, Bona and Pascal Alain (2004). Histoire des Acadiens, Saint-Laurent, Québec: Éditions Fides, 502 p.
• Sauvageau, Robert (1987). Acadie : La guerre de Cent Ans des français d'Amérique aux Maritimes et en Louisiane 1670-1769 Paris: Berger-Levrault
• Gaudet, Placide (1922). Le Grand Dérangement : sur qui retombe la responsabilité de l'expulsion des Acadiens, Ottawa: Impr. de l'Ottawa Printing Co.
• d'Arles, Henri (1918). La déportation des Acadiens, Québec: Imprimerie de l'Action sociale

External links

• Grand-Pré National Historic Site of Canada
• Acadian Ancestral Home - a repository for Acadian History & Genealogy
• Find-A-Grave article on a memorial to the Acadians in Georgia
• French and Indian War: Expulsion of the Acadians

See also

• Great Britain in the Seven Years War
• France in the Seven Years War
• Tintamarre