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[[Image:Familyplanningmalaysia.jpg|right|thumb|250px|A family planning centre in [[Malaysia]].]]
[[Image:Familyplanningmalaysia.jpg|right|thumb|250px|A family planning centre in [[Malaysia]].]]


'''Birth control''' are techniques and methods use to prevent fertilisation or to interrupt [[pregnancy]] at various stages. Birth control techniques and methods include [[contraception]] (the prevention of fertilisation), [[contragestion]] (preventing the [[implantation]] of the [[blastocyst]]) and [[abortion]] (the removal or expulsion of a [[fetus]] or [[embryo]] from the [[uterus]]). The techniques and methods frequently overlap<ref>{{Cite book| last = Hadley| first = Mac E.| title = Endocrinology| publisher = Prentice Hall| date = 2000| pages = 467| url = http://books.google.com/books?id=nef_CogvOS4C&q=birth+control+contraception+contragestion&dq=birth+control+contraception+contragestion&hl=en&ei=-PrCTJ-PAs6cOoa0-LkN&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CDUQ6AEwAjgK| isbn = 9780130803566 }}</ref> and many birth control techniques and methods are not strictly contraceptive as fertilisation or conception may occure.<ref>{{Cite book| last = Rudinow Seatnan| first = Ann| title = Bodies of technology: women’s involvement with reproductive medicine| publisher = Ohio State University Press | date = 2000| pages = 57| url = http://books.google.com/books?id=OJ7OXgC3z_IC&dq=contraception+contragestion&source=gbs_navlinks_s| isbn = 9780814208465}}</ref> Contraception include [[barrier methods]], such as [[condoms]] or [[diaphragm]], and oral and injectable contraceptives.<ref>{{Cite book| last = Hendrick| first = Judith| title = Legal aspects of child health care| publisher = Nelson Thomas | date = 1997| pages = 102| url = http://books.google.com/books?id=drcEwZHasKQC&dq=contraception+contragestion+popular+use&source=gbs_navlinks_s| isbn = 9780412583209}}</ref> Contragestives, also known as post-coital birth control, include [[intrauterine device]] and what is known as the [[morning after pill]].<ref>{{Cite book| last = Hendrick| first = Judith| title = Legal aspects of child health care| publisher = Nelson Thomas | date = 1997| pages = 103| url = http://books.google.com/books?id=drcEwZHasKQC&dq=contraception+contragestion+popular+use&source=gbs_navlinks_s| isbn = 9780412583209}}</ref>
'''Birth control''' is a regimen of one or more actions, devices, sexual practices, or [[medication]]s followed in order to deliberately prevent or reduce the likelihood of [[pregnancy]] or [[childbirth]]. There are three main routes to preventing or ending pregnancy before birth: the prevention of [[fertilization]] of the [[ovum]] by [[sperm]] [[Cell (biology)|cell]]s ("'''contraception'''"), the prevention of [[implantation]] of the [[blastocyst]] ("'''contragestion'''"), and the chemical or surgical induction or [[abortion]] of the developing [[embryo]] or, later, [[fetus]]. In common usage, the term "contraception" is often used for both contraception and contragestion.


==History==
==History==

Revision as of 15:47, 23 October 2010

For other uses, see Birth control (disambiguation).
A family planning centre in Malaysia.

Birth control are techniques and methods use to prevent fertilisation or to interrupt pregnancy at various stages. Birth control techniques and methods include contraception (the prevention of fertilisation), contragestion (preventing the implantation of the blastocyst) and abortion (the removal or expulsion of a fetus or embryo from the uterus). The techniques and methods frequently overlap[1] and many birth control techniques and methods are not strictly contraceptive as fertilisation or conception may occure.[2] Contraception include barrier methods, such as condoms or diaphragm, and oral and injectable contraceptives.[3] Contragestives, also known as post-coital birth control, include intrauterine device and what is known as the morning after pill.[4]

History

Etymology

The words "birth control" entered the English language in 1914 with the American reformer Margaret Sanger. In 1914 she launched The Woman Rebel, an eight page monthly newsletter promoting contraception, with the slogan "No Gods and No Masters", and coining this term [5][6])


Early history

Ancient Mesopotamia, Egypt and Rome

Birth control and infanticide are well documented in Mesopotamia and Ancient Egypt. One of the earliest documents explicitly referring to birth control methods is the Kuhn gynaecological papyrus from about 1850 BC. It describes various contraceptive pessaries, including acacia gum, which recent research has confirmed to have spermatocidal qualities and is still used in contraceptive jellies. Other birth control methods mentioned in the papyrus include the application of gummy substances to cover the "mouth of the womb", a mixture of honey and sodium carbonate applied to the inside of the vagina, and a pessary made from crocodile dung. Lactation of up to three years was also used for birth control purposes in ancient Egypt.[7]

Plants with contraceptive properties were used in Ancient Greece from the seventh century BC onwards and documented by numerous ancient writers on gynaecology, such as Hippocrates. The botanist Theophrastus documented the use of siliphion, a plant was well known for its contraceptive and abortifacient properties. The plant only grew on a small strip of land near the coastal city of Cyrene (located in modern day Libya), with attempts to cultivate it elsewhere failing. Its price increased due to high demand, leading to it being worth "more than its weight in silver" by the first century BC. The high demand eventually led to the extinction of siliphion during the third or second century BC. Asafoetida, a close relative of siliphion, was also used for its contraceptive properties. Other plants commonly used for birth control in ancient Greece include Queen Anne's lace (Daucus carota), willow, date palm, pomegranate, pennyroyal, artemisia, myrrh, and rue. Some of these plants are toxic and ancient Greek documents specify save dosages. Recent studies have confirmed the birth control properties of many of these plants, confirming for example that Queen Anne's lace has post coital anti-fertility properties. Queen Anne's lace is still used today for birth control in India. Like the ancient Greeks, Ancient Romans practices contraception, abortion and infanticide.[8]

Religious texts

The Book of Genesis references withdrawal, or coitus interruptus, as a method of contraception when Onan spills his semen on the ground so as to not father a child with his deceased brother's wife Tamar. The Talmud states that "there are three women that must cohabit with a sponge: a minor, a pregnant woman and one that nurses her child". Subsequent commentaries clarify that the "sponge" was an absorbent material, such as cotton or wool, intended to block sperm.[9]

Ancient China

In the seventh Century BC the Chinese physician Master Tung-hsuan documented both coitus reservatus and coitus obstructus, which prevents the release of semen during intercourse. Though it is not known if these methods were used primarely as birth control methods or to preserve the man's yang. In the same century Sun Ssu-mo documented the "thousand of gold contraceptive prescription" for women who no longer want to bear children. Made of oil and quicksilver heated together for one day and taken orally the prescription induced sterility.[10]

India

Indians used a variety of birth control methods since ancient times, including a potion made of powedered palm leaf and red chalk, as well as vaginal suppositories made of honey, ghee, rock salt or the seeds of palasa tree. A variety of birth control prescriptions, mainly made up of herbs and other plants, are listed in the 12th century Ratirahasya ("Secret of Love") and the Anangaranga ("The Stage of the God of Love").[11]

Early Islam

In the late ninth to early tenth century the Persian physician Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi documents coitus interruptus, preventing ejaculation and the use of suppositories to block the cervix as birth control methods. He describes a number of suppositories, including elephant dung, cabbages and pitch, used alone or in combination. During the same period Ali ibn Abbas al-Majusi documents the use of suppositories made of rock salt for women for whom pregnancy may be dangerous. In the early tenth century Abu Ali al-Hussain ibn Abdallah ibn Sina, known in Europe as Avicenna, included a chapter on birth control in his medical encyclopaedia The Canon of Medicine, documenting 20 different methods of preventing conception.[12]

Birth control and public policy

See also: Timeline of reproductive rights legislation
"And the villain still pursues her." Satirical Victorian era postcard

In the Soviet Union, to facilitate social equality between men and women, birth control was made readily available. Alexandra Kollontai (1872–1952), commissar for public welfare during this time, also promoted birth control education for adults as well. In France women fought for reproductive rights and they helped end the nation's ban on birth control in 1965. In Italy women gained the right to access birth control information in 1970.[13]

Barrier methods such as the condom have been around much longer, but were seen primarily as a means of preventing sexually transmitted diseases, not pregnancy. Casanova in the 18th century was one of the first reported using "assurance caps" to prevent impregnating his mistresses.[14] Small text

Methods

See also: Comparison of birth control methods

Physical methods

See also: reproductive technology
A diaphragm (a type of physical barrier method) in its case, with a quarter added for scale.

Physical methods may work in a variety of ways, among them: physically preventing sperm from entering the female reproductive tract; hormonally preventing ovulation from occurring; making the woman's reproductive tract inhospitable to sperm; or surgically altering the male or female reproductive tract to induce sterility. Some methods use more than one mechanism. Physical methods vary in simplicity, convenience and efficacy.

Barrier methods

Condom (rolled-up).

Barrier methods place a physical impediment to the movement of sperm into the female reproductive tract.

The most popular barrier method is the male condom, a latex or polyurethane sheath placed over the penis. The condom is also available in a female version, which is made of polyurethane. The female condom has a flexible ring at each end — one secures behind the pubic bone to hold the condom in place, while the other ring stays outside the vagina.

Cervical barriers are devices that are contained completely within the vagina. The contraceptive sponge has a depression to hold it in place over the cervix. The cervical cap is the smallest cervical barrier. Depending on the type of cap, it stays in place by suction to the cervix or to the vaginal walls. The diaphragm fits into place behind the woman's pubic bone and has a firm but flexible ring, which helps it press against the vaginal walls.

Spermicide may be placed in the vagina before intercourse and creates a chemical barrier. Spermicide may be used alone, or in combination with a physical barrier.

Hormonal methods

Ortho Tri-cyclen, a brand of oral contraceptive, in a dial dispenser.

There are various delivery methods for hormonal contraception. Forms of synthetic oestrogens and progestins (synthetic progestogens) combinations commonly used include the combined oral contraceptive pill ("The Pill"), the Patch, and the contraceptive vaginal ring ("NuvaRing"). A monthly injectable form, Lunelle, is not currently available for sale in the United States.

Other methods contain only a progestin (a synthetic progestogen). These include the progesterone-only pill (the POP or 'minipill'), the injectables Depo Provera (a depot formulation of medroxyprogesterone acetate given as an intramuscular injection every three months) and Noristerat (Norethindrone acetate given as an intramuscular injection every 8 weeks), and contraceptive implants. The progestin-only pill must be taken at more precisely remembered times each day than combined pills. The first contraceptive implant, Norplant, has been removed from the market in the United States but is still used in many other countries. A single-rod implant called Implanon is approved in the United States. The various progestin-only methods may cause irregular bleeding during use.

The risks of Birth Control include Increased risk of cervical and breast cancers, increased risk of heart attack and stroke, migraines, higher blood pressure, gall bladder disease, infertility, benign liver tumors, decreased bone density, yeast overgrowth and infection, and increased risk of blood clotting.

Ormeloxifene (Centchroman)

Ormeloxifene (Centchroman) is a selective estrogen receptor modulator, or SERM. It causes ovulation to occur asynchronously with the formation of the uterine lining, preventing implantation of a zygote. It has been widely available as a birth control method in India since the early 1990s, marketed under the trade name Saheli. Centchroman is legally available only in India.[citation needed]

Emergency contraception

Main article: Emergency contraception
See also: Emergency contraceptive availability by country

Some combined pills and POPs may be taken in high doses to prevent pregnancy after a birth control failure (such as a condom breaking) or after unprotected sex. Hormonal emergency contraception is also known as the "morning after pill," although it is licensed for use up to three days after intercourse.

Copper intrauterine devices may also be used as emergency contraception. For this use, they must be inserted within five days of the birth control failure or unprotected intercourse.

Emergency contraception appears to work by suppressing ovulation.[15][16] However, because it might prevent a fertilized egg from implanting,[17] some people[18] consider it a form of abortion. The details of the possible methods of action are still being studied.

Intrauterine methods

An intrauterine device.

These are contraceptive devices that are placed inside the uterus. They are usually shaped like a "T" — the arms of the T help hold the device in place. There are also frameless IUDs, which are less likely to cause complications; an example would be GyneFix. This brand is hard to find in North America. There are two main types of intrauterine contraceptives: those that contain copper (which has a spermicidal effect), and those that release a progestin (a synthetic progestogen).

Terms used for these devices differ between the United Kingdom and the United States. In the US, all devices that are placed in the uterus to prevent pregnancy are referred to as intrauterine devices (IUDs) or intrauterine contraceptive devices (IUCDs). In the UK, only copper-containing devices are called IUDs (or IUCDs), and hormonal intrauterine contraceptives are called Intra-Uterine System (IUS). This may be because there are ten types of copper IUDs available in the UK,[19] compared to only one in the US.[20]

Sterilization

Surgical sterilization is available in the form of tubal ligation for women and vasectomy for men. Sterilization should be considered permanent. In women, the process may be referred to as "tying the tubes," but the Fallopian tubes may be tied, cut, clamped, or blocked. This serves to prevent sperm from joining the unfertilized egg. The non-surgical sterilization procedure, Essure, is an example of a procedure that blocks the tubes, wherein micro-inserts are placed into the fallopian tubes by a catheter passed from the vagina through the cervix and uterus.

Although sterilization should be considered a permanent procedure, it is possible to attempt a tubal ligation reversal to reconnect the Fallopian tubes in females, or a vasovasostomy by which vasectomies are reversed in males. The rate of success depends on the type of sterilization that was originally performed and damage done to the tubes as well as the patient's age.[21]

Behavioral methods

Behavioral methods involve regulating the timing or methods of intercourse to prevent the introduction of sperm into the female reproductive tract, either altogether or when an egg may be present.

Lactational

Main article: Lactational amenorrhea method

From ancient times women tried to extend breastfeeding in order to avoid a new pregnancy. The lactational amenorrhea method, or LAM, gives guidelines for determining the length of a woman's period of breastfeeding infertility.

Fertility awareness

Symptoms-based methods of fertility awareness involve a woman's observation and charting of her body's fertility signs, to determine the fertile and infertile phases of her cycle. Charting may be done by hand or with the assistance of software. Most methods track one or more of the three primary fertility signs:[22] changes in basal body temperature, in cervical mucus, and in cervical position. If a woman tracks both basal body temperature and another primary sign, the method is referred to as symptothermal. Other bodily cues such as mittelschmerz are considered secondary indicators.

Fertility monitors are computerized devices that determine fertility or infertility based on, for example, temperature or urinalysis tests. Calendar-based methods such as the rhythm method and Standard Days Method estimate the likelihood of fertility based on the length of past menstrual cycles. To avoid pregnancy with fertility awareness, unprotected sex is restricted to the least fertile period. During the most fertile period, barrier methods may be availed, or she may abstain from intercourse.

The term natural family planning (NFP) is sometimes used to refer to any use of fertility awareness methods. However, this term specifically refers to the practices that are permitted by the Roman Catholic Church — breastfeeding infertility for example. FA methods may be used by NFP users to identify these fertile times.

Coitus interruptus

Coitus interruptus (literally "interrupted sexual intercourse"), also known as the withdrawal or pull-out method, is the practice of ending sexual intercourse ("pulling out") before ejaculation. The main risk of coitus interruptus is that the man may not perform the maneuver correctly, or may not perform the maneuver in a timely manner. Although concern has been raised about the risk of pregnancy from sperm in pre-ejaculate, several small studies[23][24] have failed to find any viable sperm in the fluid.

Avoiding Semen Near Vagina

There is no risk of pregnancy from non-penetrative sex except for Intercrural sex and other forms of penis-near-vagina sex (genital rubbing, and the penis exiting from anal intercourse) where semen can be deposited near the entrance to the vagina and can itself travel along the vagina's lubricating fluids.[25]

Total abstinence

Different groups define the term sexual abstinence in different ways. When used in discussions of birth control, usually the avoidance of all sexual activity—total sexual abstinence—is the intended meaning. Sometimes people choose to be sexually abstinent to reduce their risk of pregnancy, and abstinence may be included in lists of birth control methods. Those who are sexually abstinent do not have unplanned pregnancies.[26] Other sources instead classify abstinence as not being a form of birth control.[27][28]

Abstinence is 100% effective in preventing pregnancy; however, not everyone who intends to be abstinent refrains from all sexual activity,[29] and in many populations there is a significant risk of pregnancy from nonconsensual sex.[30] As a public health measure, it is estimated that the protection provided by abstinence may be similar to that of condoms.[31] Some authorities recommend that those using abstinence as a primary method have backup method(s) available (such as condoms or emergency contraceptive pills).[32]

Induced abortion

In some areas, women use abortion as a primary means to control birth. This practice is more common in Russia,[33] Turkey,[34] and Ukraine.[35] On the other hand, women from Canada,[36] and other places[citation needed] generally do not use abortion as a primary form of birth control. Abortion is subject to ethical debate.

Surgical abortion methods include suction-aspiration abortion (used in the first trimester) or dilation and evacuation (used in the second trimester). Medical abortion methods involve the use of medication that is swallowed or inserted vaginally to induce abortion. Medical abortion can be used if the length of gestation has not exceeded 8 weeks.

Some herbs are considered abortifacient, and some animal studies have found various herbs to be effective in inducing abortion in non-human animal species.[37][38] Humans generally do not use herbs when other methods are available, due to the unknown efficacy and due to risks of toxicity..

Methods in development

For females

  • Praneem is a polyherbal vaginal tablet being studied in India as a spermicide, and a microbicide active against HIV.[39]
  • BufferGel is a spermicidal gel being studied as a microbicide active against HIV.[40]
  • Duet is a disposable diaphragm in development that will be pre-filled with BufferGel.[41] It is designed to deliver microbicide to both the cervix and vagina. Unlike currently available diaphragms, the Duet will be manufactured in only one size and will not require a prescription, fitting, or a visit to a doctor.[40]
  • The SILCS diaphragm is a silicone barrier that is still in clinical testing. It has a finger cup molded on one end for easy removal. Unlike currently available diaphragms, the SILCS diaphragm will be available in only one size.
  • A longer acting vaginal ring is being developed that releases both estrogen and progesterone, and is effective for over 12 months.[42]
  • Two types of progestogen-only vaginal rings are being developed. Progestogen-only products may be particularly useful for women who are breastfeeding.[42] The rings may be used for four months at a time.[43]
  • A progesterone-only contraceptive is being developed that would be sprayed onto the skin once a day.[44]
  • Quinacrine sterilization (non-surgical) and the Adiana procedure (similar to Essure) are two permanent methods of birth control being developed.[45]

For males

Main article: Male contraceptive

Other than condoms and withdrawal, there is currently only one method of birth control available. This option is a having a vasectomy, a minor surgical procedure wherein the vasa deferentia of a man are severed, and then tied/sealed in a manner which prevents sperm from entering the seminal stream (ejaculate). Several methods are in research and development:

Misconceptions

Modern misconceptions and urban legends have given rise to a great many false claims:

  • The suggestion that douching with any substance immediately following intercourse works as a contraceptive is untrue. While it may seem like a sensible idea to try to wash the ejaculate out of the vagina, it is not likely to be effective. Due to the nature of the fluids and the structure of the female reproductive tract, douching most likely actually spreads semen further towards the uterus. Some slight spermicidal effect may occur if the douche solution is particularly acidic, but overall it is not scientifically observed to be a reliably effective method. Douching is neither a contraceptive nor a preventative measure against STDs or other infections.
  • It is untrue that a female cannot become pregnant as a result of the first time she engages in sexual intercourse.
  • While women are usually less fertile for the first few days of menstruation,[47] it is a myth that a woman absolutely cannot get pregnant if she has sex during her period.[citation needed]
  • Having sex in a hot tub does not prevent pregnancy, but may contribute to vaginal infections.[48]
  • Although some sex positions may encourage pregnancy, no sexual positions prevent pregnancy. Having sex while standing up or with a woman on top will not keep the sperm from entering the uterus. The force of ejaculation, the contractions of the uterus caused by prostaglandins[citation needed] in the semen, as well as ability of the sperm to swim overrides gravity.
  • Urinating after sex does not prevent pregnancy and is not a form of birth control, although it is often advised anyway to help prevent urinary tract infections.[49]
  • Toothpaste cannot be used as an effective contraceptive.[50]
  • Though intrauterine devices (IUDs) are popular in many parts of the world, many people in the United States believe they are dangerous, probably in large part due to the widely publicized health risks associated with an IUD model called the Dalkon Shield. In reality, the most recent models of the IUD, ParaGard and Mirena, are both extremely safe and effective.[51]

Effectiveness

See also the table at: Comparison of birth control methods

Effectiveness is generally measured by how many women become pregnant using a particular birth control method in the first year of use. Thus, if 100 women use a method that has a 0 percent first-year failure rate, then 0 of the women should become pregnant during the first year of use. This equals 0 pregnancies per 100 woman-years, an alternative unit. Sometimes the effectiveness is given in lifetime failure rate, more commonly among methods with high effectiveness, such as vasectomy after the appropriate negative semen analysis.[52]

The most effective methods in typical use are those that do not depend upon regular user action. Surgical sterilization, Depo-Provera, implants, and intrauterine devices (IUDs) all have first-year failure rates of less than one percent for perfect use. In reality, however, perfect use may not be the case, but still, sterilization, implants, and IUDs also have typical failure rates under one percent. The typical failure rate of Depo-Provera is disagreed upon, with figures ranging from less than one percent up to three percent.[53][54]

Other methods may be highly effective if used consistently and correctly, but can have typical use first-year failure rates that are considerably higher due to incorrect or ineffective usage by the user. Hormonal contraceptive pills, patches or rings, fertility awareness methods, and the lactational amenorrhea method (LAM), if used strictly, have first-year (or for LAM, first-6-month) failure rates of less than 1%.[55][56][57][58] In one survey, typical use first-year failure rates of hormonal contraceptive pills (and by extrapolation, patches or rings) were as high as five percent per year. Fertility awareness methods as a whole have typical use first-year failure rates as high as 25 percent per year; however, as stated above, perfect use of these methods reduces the first-year failure rate to less than 1%.[53]

Condoms and cervical barriers such as the diaphragm have similar typical use first-year failure rates (14 and 20 percent, respectively), but perfect usage of the condom is more effective (three percent first-year failure vs six percent) and condoms have the additional feature of helping to prevent the spread of sexually transmitted diseases such as the HIV virus. The withdrawal method, if used consistently and correctly, has a first-year failure rate of four percent. Due to the difficulty of consistently using withdrawal correctly, it has a typical use first-year failure rate of 19 percent,[53] and is not recommended by some medical professionals.[59]

Combining two birth control methods, can increase their effectiveness to 95% or more for less effective methods.[60] Using condoms with another birth control method is also one of the recommended methods of reducing risk of getting sexually transmitted infections, including HIV. This approach is one of the Dual Protection Strategies.[61]

Protection against sexually transmitted infections

See also: Safe sex

Some methods of birth control also offer protection against sexually transmitted infections (STIs). The male latex condom offers some protection against some STIs with correct and consistent use, as does the female condom, although the latter has been approved only for vaginal sex. The female condom may offer greater protection against STIs that pass through skin to skin contact, as the outer ring covers more exposed skin than the male condom. Some of the methods involving avoiding vaginal intercourse can also reduce risk: latex or polyurethane barriers can be used during oral sex, and mutual or solo masturbation are very low-risk. The remaining methods of birth control do not offer significant protection against the sexual transmission of STIs.

Many STIs may also be transmitted non-sexually; this is one reason why abstinence from sexual behavior does not guarantee 100 percent protection against sexually transmitted infections. For example, HIV may be transmitted through contaminated needles that may be used in intravenous drug use, tattooing, body piercing, or injections. Health-care workers have acquired HIV through occupational exposure to accidental injuries with needles.[62]

Legality

United States

Some states formerly had laws prohibiting the use of contraception. In 1965, the Supreme Court of the United States ruled in the case Griswold v. Connecticut that a Connecticut law prohibiting the use of contraceptives violated the "right to marital privacy." In 1972, the case Eisenstadt v. Baird expanded the right to possess and use contraceptives to unmarried couples.

France

The 1920 Birth Law contains a clause that criminalizes dissemination of birth-control literature.[63] That law, however, was annuled in 1967 by the Neuwirth Law, thus authorizing contraception, which will only be refunded in 1975 with the Veil Law. Only 5% of French women aged 18 to 45 don't use contraception.

Religious and cultural attitudes

Religious views on birth control

Main article: Religious views on birth control

Religions vary widely in their views of the ethics of birth control. The Roman Catholic Church accepts only Natural Family Planning and only for serious reasons,[64] while Protestants maintain a wide range of views from allowing none to very lenient.[65][dead link] Views in Judaism range from the stricter Orthodox sect to the more relaxed Reform sect.[66] In Islam, contraceptives are allowed if they do not threaten health, although their use is discouraged by some.[67] Hindus may use both natural and artificial contraceptives, however they are against any contraceptive method that works after fertilization.[68] A common Buddhist view of birth control is that preventing conception is ethically acceptable, while intervening after conception has occurred or may have occurred is not.[69]

Birth control education

Many teenagers, most commonly in developed countries, receive some form of sex education in school. What information should be provided in such programs is hotly contested, especially in the United States and United Kingdom. Topics include reproductive anatomy, human sexual behavior, information on sexually transmitted diseases (STDs), social aspects of sexual interaction, negotiating skills intended to help teens follow through with a decision to remain abstinent or to use birth control during sex, and information on birth control methods.

One type of sex education program used in some more conservative areas of the United States is called abstinence-only education, and it generally promotes complete sexual abstinence until marriage. The programs do not encourage birth control, often provide inaccurate information about contraceptives and sexuality,[70] stress failure rates of condoms and other contraceptives, and teach strategies for avoiding sexually intimate situations. Advocates of abstinence-only education believe that the programs will result in decreased rates of teenage pregnancy and STD infection. In a non-random, Internet survey of 1,400 women who found and completed a 10-minute multiple-choice online questionnaire listed in one of several popular search engines, women who received sex education from schools providing primarily abstinence information, or contraception and abstinence information equally, reported fewer unplanned pregnancies than those who received primarily contraceptive information, who in turn reported fewer unplanned pregnancies than those who received no information.[71] However, randomized controlled trials demonstrate that abstinence-only sex education programs increase the rates of pregnancy and STDs in the teenage population.[72][73] Professional medical organizations, including the AMA, AAP, ACOG, APHA, APA, and Society for Adolescent Medicine, support comprehensive sex education (providing abstinence and contraceptive information) and oppose the sole use of abstinence-only sex education.[74][75]

See also

References

  1. ^ Hadley, Mac E. (2000). Endocrinology. Prentice Hall. p. 467. ISBN 9780130803566.
  2. ^ Rudinow Seatnan, Ann (2000). Bodies of technology: women’s involvement with reproductive medicine. Ohio State University Press. p. 57. ISBN 9780814208465.
  3. ^ Hendrick, Judith (1997). Legal aspects of child health care. Nelson Thomas. p. 102. ISBN 9780412583209.
  4. ^ Hendrick, Judith (1997). Legal aspects of child health care. Nelson Thomas. p. 103. ISBN 9780412583209.
  5. ^ Galvin, Rachel. Margaret Sanger's "Deeds of Terrible Virtue" Humanities, National Endowment for the Humanities, September/October 1998, Volume 19/Number 5
  6. ^ "Margaret Sanger Clinic, Statement of Significance". National Historic Landmarks Program. National Park Service. 1993-09-14. Retrieved 2010-03-09.
  7. ^ Lipsey, Richard G. (2005). Economi transformations: general purpose technologies and long-term economic growth. Oxford University Press. p. 335. ISBN 9780199285648. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  8. ^ Lipsey, Richard G. (2005). Economi transformations: general purpose technologies and long-term economic growth. Oxford University Press. p. 336. ISBN 9780199285648. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  9. ^ Middleberg, Maurice I. (2003). Promoting reproductive security in developing countries. Springer. p. 4. ISBN 9780306474491.
  10. ^ Middleberg, Maurice I. (2003). Promoting reproductive security in developing countries. Springer. p. 4. ISBN 9780306474491.
  11. ^ Middleberg, Maurice I. (2003). Promoting reproductive security in developing countries. Springer. p. 4. ISBN 9780306474491.
  12. ^ Middleberg, Maurice I. (2003). Promoting reproductive security in developing countries. Springer. p. 4. ISBN 9780306474491.
  13. ^ Hunt, Lynn, Thomas R. Martin, Barbara H. Rosenwein, R. Po-chia Hsia, and Bonnie G. Smith. The Making of the West: Peoples and Cultures. Third ed. Vol. C. Boston: Bedford/St. Martin's, 2009.
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