Bayt Jibrin: Difference between revisions

Coordinates: 31°36′45.99″N 34°53′53.78″E / 31.6127750°N 34.8982722°E / 31.6127750; 34.8982722
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Browse history interactively
← Previous editNext edit →
Content deleted Content added
VisualWikitext
copyedit
add samson tradition and remove falsehood about who defaced the mosaics
Line 30: Line 30:
{{Palestinians}}
{{Palestinians}}
{{main|Eleutheropolis}}
{{main|Eleutheropolis}}
Regional folklore had it that the village originally was inhabited by [[Canaan]]ites who were said to be a race of giants.<ref name="Khalidi"/><ref>[http://alcor.concordia.ca/~pal/History/Villages/[email protected] Bayt Jibrin Before 1948] (1997) Nashashibi, Rami. Center for Research and Documentation of Palestinian Society, Birzeit University.</ref> The ancient city of [[Maresha]], adjacent to the site of Bayt Jibrin, is mentioned eight times in the Bible. In [[I Chronicles]], it is said to have been built by King [[Rehoboam]], and in [[II Chronicles]], it is cited as the place where [[Asa of Judah|Asa]] defeated [[Zerah]] the Ethiopian in the valley of ''Zephathah''.<ref>Second Book of Chronicles 14: 9, 10</ref> ''Maresha'' was conquered by the [[Edom]]ites. After the settlement of Greeks and people from [[Sidon]] in the 4th century BCE, Maresha became an important commercial town and a center of slave trade with [[Egypt]]. During the [[Hasmonean]] wars, Maresha was used as a base for attacks against Judea, leading to retaliation from the [[Maccabees]]. The Hasmonean king [[John Hyrcanus I]] conquered Maresha in the mid-2nd century BCE, and forced the pagan inhabitants to convert to [[Judaism]].<ref>[http://www.jewishmag.com/35MAG/betguvrin/betguvrin.htm Beit Guvrin] Schaalje, Jacqueline. Jewish Magazine. August 2000.</ref> Maresha was destroyed by [[Parthians]] in 40 BCE and the population moved two miles north to the modern site of Bayt Jibrin. In Roman times, the town covered an area of 650 [[dunam]]s.<ref name="Kloner"/>
Regional folklore had it that the village originally was inhabited by [[Canaan]]ites who were said to be a race of giants.<ref name="Khalidi"/><ref>[http://alcor.concordia.ca/~pal/History/Villages/[email protected] Bayt Jibrin Before 1948] (1997) Nashashibi, Rami. Center for Research and Documentation of Palestinian Society, Birzeit University.</ref> The ancient city of [[Maresha]], adjacent to the site of Bayt Jibrin, is mentioned eight times in the Bible. In [[I Chronicles]], it is said to have been built by King [[Rehoboam]], and in [[II Chronicles]], it is cited as the place where [[Asa of Judah|Asa]] defeated [[Zerah]] the Ethiopian in the valley of ''Zephathah''.<ref>Second Book of Chronicles 14: 9, 10</ref> ''Maresha'' was conquered by the [[Edom]]ites. It was identified as the spot on which [[Samson]] defeated the [[Philistines]] with the jawbone of an ass. A relic of this jawbone was later shown to Christian pilgrims to the city. <ref name="STF-J">[http://198.62.75.1/www1/ofm/mad/discussion/084discuss.html Eleutheropolis - (Bayt Jibrin)] Studium Biblicum Franciscanum - Jerusalem. [[2000-12-19]]</ref>
After the settlement of Greeks and people from [[Sidon]] in the 4th century BCE, Maresha became an important commercial town and a center of slave trade with [[Egypt]]. During the [[Hasmonean]] wars, Maresha was used as a base for attacks against Judea, leading to retaliation from the [[Maccabees]]. The Hasmonean king [[John Hyrcanus I]] conquered Maresha in the mid-2nd century BCE, and forced the pagan inhabitants to convert to [[Judaism]].<ref>[http://www.jewishmag.com/35MAG/betguvrin/betguvrin.htm Beit Guvrin] Schaalje, Jacqueline. Jewish Magazine. August 2000.</ref> Maresha was destroyed by [[Parthians]] in 40 BCE and the population moved two miles north to the modern site of Bayt Jibrin. In Roman times, the town covered an area of 650 [[dunam]]s.<ref name="Kloner"/>


''Eleutheropolis'' flourished under the Romans, who built large public buildings, military installations and a 3,000&nbsp;m<sup>2</sup> amphitheater.<ref name="Kloner"/> In his descripton of [[Palestine]], the 4th century Roman historian [[Ammianus Marcellinus]] listed ''Eleutheropolis'' as one of the five "Cities of Excellence."<ref name="Kloner">[http://198.62.75.1/www1/ofm/mad/articles/KlonerEleutheropolis.html The City of Eleutheropolis] Kloner, Amos. Studium Biblicum Franciscanum - Jerusalem. [[2000-12-16]].</ref>
''Eleutheropolis'' flourished under the Romans, who built large public buildings, military installations and a 3,000&nbsp;m<sup>2</sup> amphitheater.<ref name="Kloner"/> In his descripton of [[Palestine]], the 4th century Roman historian [[Ammianus Marcellinus]] listed ''Eleutheropolis'' as one of the five "Cities of Excellence."<ref name="Kloner">[http://198.62.75.1/www1/ofm/mad/articles/KlonerEleutheropolis.html The City of Eleutheropolis] Kloner, Amos. Studium Biblicum Franciscanum - Jerusalem. [[2000-12-16]].</ref>
Line 36: Line 38:
Christianity penetrated the city quickly due to its location on the crossroads of the route between Jerusalem and [[Gaza]]. Christian missionaries reached it via the [[Beisan]] road, the [[Hebron]] road or the mountain route west of [[Bethlehem]]. Its first bishop was [[Justus]], one of the [[Seventy Disciples|70 Disciples]]. In 325 CE, ''Eleutheropolis'' became the seat of Bishop Macrinus, who was present at the [[First Council of Nicaea]].<ref name="STF-J"/>
Christianity penetrated the city quickly due to its location on the crossroads of the route between Jerusalem and [[Gaza]]. Christian missionaries reached it via the [[Beisan]] road, the [[Hebron]] road or the mountain route west of [[Bethlehem]]. Its first bishop was [[Justus]], one of the [[Seventy Disciples|70 Disciples]]. In 325 CE, ''Eleutheropolis'' became the seat of Bishop Macrinus, who was present at the [[First Council of Nicaea]].<ref name="STF-J"/>


The ruins of three [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]]-era churches are located in Bayt Jibrin. The church located on a northern hill of the town had elaborate mosaics depicting the four seasons until it was defaced by [[Israel]]i forces in the 1948 War.<ref name="STF-J">[http://198.62.75.1/www1/ofm/mad/discussion/084discuss.html Eleutheropolis - (Bayt Jibrin)] Studium Biblicum Franciscanum - Jerusalem. [[2000-12-19]].</ref> The church south of the town was dedicated [[Saint John]] and today its remains only consist of an [[apse]] with arched windows.<ref name="STF-J"/>
The ruins of three [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]]-era churches are located in Bayt Jibrin. The church located on a northern hill of the town had elaborate mosaics depicting the four seasons. <ref name="STF-J">[http://198.62.75.1/www1/ofm/mad/discussion/084discuss.html Eleutheropolis - (Bayt Jibrin)] Studium Biblicum Franciscanum - Jerusalem. [[2000-12-19]].</ref> The church south of the town was dedicated [[Saint John]] and today its remains only consist of an [[apse]] with arched windows.<ref name="STF-J"/>


===Arab, Crusader, Mamluk and Ottoman rule===
===Arab, Crusader, Mamluk and Ottoman rule===

Revision as of 05:30, 17 June 2008

Template:Infobox Former Arab villages in Palestine Bayt Jibrin (Arabic: بيت جبرين, also Beit Jibrin) was a Palestinian village located Template:Km to mi northwest of the city of Hebron. In the last census of Palestine in 1945, the population was 2,430. It had a total land area of 56,185 dunums, of which 287 were built-up and the remainder farmland.[1]

The early inhabitants of Bayt Jibrin are believed to have been Canaanites. The town was known as Bethletephon during the First Jewish-Roman War. After the Herodian period, the name was hellenized to Eleutheropolis. During the Late Roman period , Eleutheropolis became a Roman colonia (colony) and a major administrative center stretching from Ein Gedi on the Dead Sea coast to Gerar. After the Islamic conquest of Palestine by the Rashidun Caliphate, Bayt Jibrin was one of ten towns conquered by Amr ibn al-A'as. According to Arab legend, it was the burial place of Tamim Abu Ruqayya, a companion of the Islamic prophet Muhammad. Under the Crusaders, the town declined economically, but prospered after its capture by the Mamluk sultan Baibars. The Ottoman Turks imposed taxes on grains, honey and livestock. In the 19th century, the Egyptian al-'Azaa family took control of Bayt Jibrin and 16 other villages. Attempts to rebel against the Ottomans ended in the exile and execution of local leaders.

Under the British Mandate for Palestine, Bayt Jibrin again served as a district center for the surrounding villages.[2] In the 1947 UN Partition Plan, Bayt Jibrin was designated as part of the Arab state, but the town was captured from the Egyptian army by Israeli forces at the onset of the 1948 Arab-Israeli War and its inhabitants fled to the east. Many of these refugees or their descendants today live in the al-'Azza and Fawwar camps in the southern West Bank. Kibbutz Beit Guvrin was established on the lands of the village in 1949.

Etymology

Bayt Jibrin's Greek name Eleutheropolis (Gr. EX€vOEparrbXcs) means “city of the free."[3][4][5] Under the Crusaders, it was called Gibelin. In the Middle Ages, it was known as Beit Jibril ("House of Gabriel").[6] In Arabic, Bayt Jibrin means "house of the powerful."[7]It was called Bethletephon by the Roman Jewish historian Josephus in his account of the First Jewish-Roman War, who described it as a toparchy or administrative capital.[8] The Roman geographer Ptolemy called it Baitogabra.[9]

History

Biblical and Roman eras

Part of a series on
Palestinians
Demographics
Politics
Previous
(political parties)
Current
Religion / religious sites
Culture
List of Palestinians
Main article: Eleutheropolis

Regional folklore had it that the village originally was inhabited by Canaanites who were said to be a race of giants.[2][10] The ancient city of Maresha, adjacent to the site of Bayt Jibrin, is mentioned eight times in the Bible. In I Chronicles, it is said to have been built by King Rehoboam, and in II Chronicles, it is cited as the place where Asa defeated Zerah the Ethiopian in the valley of Zephathah.[11] Maresha was conquered by the Edomites. It was identified as the spot on which Samson defeated the Philistines with the jawbone of an ass. A relic of this jawbone was later shown to Christian pilgrims to the city. [12]

After the settlement of Greeks and people from Sidon in the 4th century BCE, Maresha became an important commercial town and a center of slave trade with Egypt. During the Hasmonean wars, Maresha was used as a base for attacks against Judea, leading to retaliation from the Maccabees. The Hasmonean king John Hyrcanus I conquered Maresha in the mid-2nd century BCE, and forced the pagan inhabitants to convert to Judaism.[13] Maresha was destroyed by Parthians in 40 BCE and the population moved two miles north to the modern site of Bayt Jibrin. In Roman times, the town covered an area of 650 dunams.[14]

Eleutheropolis flourished under the Romans, who built large public buildings, military installations and a 3,000 m2 amphitheater.[14] In his descripton of Palestine, the 4th century Roman historian Ammianus Marcellinus listed Eleutheropolis as one of the five "Cities of Excellence."[14]

Christianity penetrated the city quickly due to its location on the crossroads of the route between Jerusalem and Gaza. Christian missionaries reached it via the Beisan road, the Hebron road or the mountain route west of Bethlehem. Its first bishop was Justus, one of the 70 Disciples. In 325 CE, Eleutheropolis became the seat of Bishop Macrinus, who was present at the First Council of Nicaea.[12]

The ruins of three Byzantine-era churches are located in Bayt Jibrin. The church located on a northern hill of the town had elaborate mosaics depicting the four seasons. [12] The church south of the town was dedicated Saint John and today its remains only consist of an apse with arched windows.[12]

Arab, Crusader, Mamluk and Ottoman rule

The Muslim Rashidun army conquered the region towards the end of the reign of the first caliph Abu Bakr al-Siddiq (d. 634). The 9th century historian Biladhuri mentions Bayt Jibrin as one of 10 towns in Filastin ("Palestine") conquered by the military commander 'Amr ibn al-'As.[15] Biladhuri furthermore writes that ibn al-'As enclosed a domain to Bayt Jibrin, to which he gave the name ´Ajlun, after one of his freemen.[16] After its capture by Arab forces, 46 soldiers who defended the city were forced to apostatize, but refused; they were subsequently taken to Jerusalem and hanged.[12] Arab legend claims Bayt Jibrin was the burial place of a companion of the prophet Muhammad, Tamim Abu Ruqayya.[2] Other tombs in the village include one for a local resident Sheikh Mahmud and one for Sheikha Ameina.[1]

In 796, Bayt Jibrin was destroyed by Muslim forces as a part of wider effort to combat Christian influence in the region. According to a monk and author of the time named Stephen, "it was laid waste, and its inhabitants carried off into captivity". However, this view is contested.[12] According to the Muslim traveller al-Muqaddasi, writing in 985,

[Bayt Jibrin] is a city partly in the hill country, partly in the plain. Its territory has the name of Ad Darum (the ancient Daroma and the modern Dairan), and there are here marble quarries. The district sends its produce to the capital (Ar Ramlah). It is an emporium for the neighbouring country, and a land of riches and plenty, possessing fine domains. The population, however, is now on the decrease...."[17]

Bayt Jibrin was later conquered by the Crusaders — who at first mistook it for Beersheba, and called it Bethgibelin. In May 1123, the Muslim Fatimids invaded the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem and captured the coastal city of Ascalon; attempts by the Crusaders to retake the city failed. In 1134, Bethgibelin became an episcopal see, as appears from documents which mention at least five successive bishops. The next year, the Crusaders embarked on a programme of fortifying the city to prevent the Ascalon-based Fatimids from conquering the city, and it was entrusted to the Hospitallers.[18] They finished building a castle there in 1137.[2] A large church was erected, which later went by the name of qal'a or "fortress" and was used by Arab families after the fall of the Kingdom of Jerusalem.[12]

Yaqut al-Hamawi, writing at the beginning of the 13th century, referred to Bayt Jibrin as one of the 11 principal towns in Palestine, with a Crusader castle that had been destroyed by Saladin in 1187. The Crusaders retook the city under the leadership of Richard the Lionhearted in 1191. The Mamluk sultan Rukn ad-Din Baybars (1223 –1277) captured Bethgibelin, restored its Arabic name (Bayt Jibrin) and ended the Crusader control of the city in 1264. It prospered during the Mamluk period and served as a postal station between Gaza an al-Karak.[2] In 1596, Bayt Jibrin was a village in the Ottoman nahiya ("subdistrict") of the (liwa´ ("district") of Gaza, with a population of 275. It paid taxes on a number of crops, including wheat, barley, and sesame, as well as on other types of produce, such as goats and beehives.[19]

19th century

In 1838, the American scholar Edward Robinson visited the Bayt Jibrin, and identified it with ancient Eleutheropolis.[20] The Scottish painter David Roberts visited Bayt Jibrin on March 19, 1839, and made a sketch there. The lithograph based on the drawing was published with the title Beit Jibrin, or Eleutheropolis, in his book Holy Land, Syria, Idumea, Arabia, Egypt & Nubia London 1842-1849.[21]

In the 19th century, the village's local leaders, or shaykhs, were from the ´Azza family, which controlled the district of Qaysiyya al-Tahta from Bayt Jibrin. The family had migrated to Palestine "a long time ago" from the Egyptian province of al-Shaqiyyaa.[22] In the mid-late 19th century, the family became involved in Ottoman attempts to crush the local leaders in the Hebron region for upheavals and resistance of taxation. The ´Azza family had aligned itself to the leader of the ´Amr clan of Hebron. In 1846, Muslih al-´Azza (nicknamed "the giant of Bayt Jibrin") was deported together with ´Abd al-Rahman of Hebron and other shaykhs. However, by the beginning of the 1850´s, the shaykhs of the Hebron Hills were able to return.[23] Relative calm reigned in Jabal al-Khalil ("Mount Hebron") for four years, and Muslih al-´Azza remained as nazir.[24]

In 1855, the newly appointed Ottoman Governor of the Jerusalem district, Kamil Pasha, exerted a more serious effort to subdue the district's rebellious Hebron region, which included Bayt Jibrin. Pasha and his army marched towards Hebron in July 1855, and took an oath of loyalty from the local shaykhs, including those under the rule of Muslih al-´Azza in Bayt Jibrin.[25] Muslih himself, however, did not appear. Kamil Pasha asked the British consul in the area, James Finn, to act as an envoy and arrange a meeting with Muslih. Finn sent his vice-consul to assure Muslih of his safety in Hebron and convinced him to meet with Pasha. Muslih was well-received in Hebron and returned to Bayt Jibrin escorted by twenty of the Pasha´s men. Kamil Pasha soon came to Bayt Jibrin to settle the terms of his agreement with Muslih, collect taxes owed by the town, and settle any political arrangements between the Ottoman administration and the local leaders.[26]

Bayt Jibrin stood on the edge of Jabal al-Khalil and was well-concealed and well-protected. In the middle of the locality stood the two-story stone house of the shaykh. The remains of the Crusader fortress still served for defensive purposes.[27] The Swiss writer Konrad Furrer was very impressed by the "castle" or "manor," as well as by the shaykh of Bayt Jibrin, when he visited in 1863. According to the shaykh, he was in command of 16 villages and was pledged "to provide as many as 2,000 men to the government if necessary."[28]

H. B. Trisram writes that in 1864 he encountered Mohammed Isa — brother of Jellah, Bayt Jibrin's shaykh — at Bir-es-Seba. Mohammed informed Trisram, that Jellah had been seized by the Pasha to extort money on false accusations of treason, and under promise of safe conduct had been banished to Cyprus, where he had been at once beheaded, and all his property confiscated. Mohammed, on hearing the news had retired into the wilderness, and the authorities had thereupon seized his family and all of his possessions. He returned to Bayt Jibrin with a band of around 4,000 men.[29]

1948 War and aftermath

During World War I, the British captured Palestine, including Bayt Jibrin from the Ottomans and in 1922, it became a part of the British Mandate of Palestine as a major town in the District of Hebron. It had two schools, a clinic, a bus and a police station, and residents from nearby towns flocked to the weekly market. Bayt Jibrin was in the territory allotted to the Arab state under the 1947 UN Partition Plan.[30]

During the 1948 Arab-Israeli War, Bayt Jibrin became a front-line village after the second phase of the war, which ended on July 18. Egyptian Army fortifications were established throughout the village.[31] In his report on September 16, United Nations Security Council mediator Count Folke Bernadotte suggested trading the Negev to the Arabs in exchange for the Western Galilee, a suggestion which the Israeli political and military leadership found unacceptable, and which made them focus their military operations on the south.[32]

In October, the Israel Defense Forces (IDF) launched a new offensive, named Operation Yoav, on October 15-16. The offensive was radically different from the operations only three months earlier; the IDF now possessed bombers and fighters, field artillery, mortars and tanks. These were deployed against a number of towns and villages, including Bayt Jibrin. Most of the attacked communities had never experienced air attack and were not prepared for it, neither psychologically nor in terms of shelter or ground defences.[31] Panic flight therefore started from Bayt Jibrin on October 19, after Israeli Air Force bombing.

On October 23, there was a UN-imposed ceasefire, however, within days there were a succession of IDF "nibbles" at the Arab-occupied areas. More villagers fled from Bayt Jibrin following an IDF raid on the neighbouring police fort on the night of October 24. On the 27th, IDF units then occupied Bayt Jibrin and its police fort.[33]

An eyewitness survivor of the assault, Afif Ghatashe, now a refugee in al-Fawwar Camp in the West Bank, explained:

"In the 1948 war, the village was attacked by Zionist military units and bombed by Israeli aircraft. By that time, Beit Jibreen already hosted many refugees from neighboring villages. The fighting and bombing frightened the people. They escaped the fighting and sought shelter in the surrounding hills. The family of the child found protection in a cave 5 km east of the village. They had left everything in their home, hoping to return after a few days when the attack would be over. The Israelis, however, did not allow them to return. Several men of Beit Jibreen were killed when they tried to go back. The father of the child, then 24 years old, and his uncle returned to the village together so as to bring wheat, food, clothing and other necessary items. But the Israeli units had mined the village paths, and the two men stepped on mine just in front of their house. The mine exploded, walls of their house collapsed, and the two men died. The child was eight months old when his father was killed and he became an orphan. At that time, his family lost the hope to return home. They joined a refugee camp located eight kilometers south of Hebron. This child is me and this is my story."[34]

In 1949, the Jewish town of Beit Guvrin was founded on the former town's lands.[35]

Geography

Bayt Jibrin was located in a plain just west of the Hebron Hills Template:Km to mi northwest of Hebron. It had an elevation of around Template:M to ft above sea level.[35] Nearby localities included the depopulated villages of Kudna to the north, al-Qubayba to the southwest, al-Dawayima to the south and the existing Palestinian towns of Beit Ula to east and Idhna to the southeast.[1]

In 1945, Bayt Jibrin's total land area was 56,185 dunams, 98% of which was Arab-owned. Its built-up area consisted of only 287 dunams, while cultivable land consisted of 33,278 dunams and non-cultivable land made up 21,612 dunams. Cereal crops were planted on 54.8% of the town's land, 6.2% was planted with olives and 4.4% was irrigated land.[36]

The immediate vicinity of Bayt Jibrin is rich in natural and artificial caverns (approximately 800).

Demographics

During the Roman period of rule, Bayt Jibrin had a mixed population of Jews, Christians and pagans. Gradually, however, Islam became the dominant religion of the town throughout the centuries of Muslim rule.[14]

In Ottoman tax records from 1596, the town had a population of 275 inhabitants. In the 19th century its population reached 900. This rose to about 1,000 in 1912,[37] and to 1,420 in the next decade. According to a British Mandate census in 1931, Bayt Jibrin's population was 1,804.[35] Later, in a 1945 land and population survey by Sami Hadawi, the town's population dramatically increased to 2,430.[38] The general pattern of increase over every 9-11 years from 1912 to 1945 was around 400-500. In 1948, the projected population was 2,819.[35]

There were about 17,310 Palestinian refugees and descendants of refugees from Bayt Jibrin in 1998. Many of these refugees live in the al-'Azza and Fawwar camps in the southern West Bank.[35]

Culture

Bayt Jibrin was, together with Hebron and some surrounding villages, known to produce some of the richest and most beautiful forms of Palestinian embroidery. [39]

An example of this is a woman's jillayeh (wedding dress), from Bayt Jibrin, about 1900, in the Museum of International Folk Art (MOIFA) collection at Santa Fe, USA. It is of handwoven indigo linen and has very long, pointed wing-sleeves. The qabbeh ("chest-piece") is embroidered with several patterns: the qelayed pattern, a pattern with inverted, smaller chevrons; the so-called maya ("water") motif, el-ferraneh ("the bakers wife") pattern, and the saru ("cypress") motif. The side panels of the dress are completely covered with embroidery. The motifs include: mushut ("combs"), qubur ("graves"), fanajin qahweh ("coffee cups"), and rukbeh ("knee"). There are some shajarat el-hub ("trees of love") embroidered on to the red and orange silk on the front of the skirt. The embroidery is silk cross stitch, mainly in red, with some orange yellow, pink, and purple. [40]

Bride's wedding attire from Bayt Jibrin in an exhibition at Oriental Institute, Chicago

MOIFA also has a shambar (large veil) from the late 19th century from Bayt Jibrin. This veil would be used with a jillayeh as above, for weddings and festivals. It consists of 3 sections of handwoven black silk (each the width of the loom) embroidered and joined together lengthwise with Cretan stitch. There is a heavy red silk fringe which was made separately and added to the embroidered end.[41][42]

Picture to the right shows a bride's wedding attire ("thob") from Bayt Jibrin, heavily embroidered with cross-stitch on the enlarged chest panel, and on the sides and the back panels with various floral and geometric motifs. The front, from the waist to the hem, is densely decorated with colorful taffeta appliqué covered with motifs embroidered with the Bethlehem-style couching. The yoke and narrow sleeves are adorned with silk overlaid with the stars and watches motif of Bethlehem in couching stitch. The chest panel resembles that of Ramallah, especially the presence of the arch motif. The patterns and motifs on the chest panel are repeated on the side and ba ck panel of the thob.

The head veil (shambar) is a very heavy piece of black silk crepe, one end of which is almost completely embroidered with magenta-red cross-stitch and embellished with sequins. Thick tassels adorn the end of this section. A woman wore the shambar mainly on her wedding day, positioned so that when she covered her face the embroidered end would show. The headdress (iraqiyeh) is embroidered with cross-stitch and decorated with Ottoman coins minted in AH 1223, corresponding to AD 1808, as well as Maria Theresa coins. The iraqiyeh was worn by married women and elaborate pieces were passed down through the family to be used by several generations. Long embroidered headbands made of heavily embroidered cotton hanging from both sides were wrapped around the woman's braids to facilitate the bundling of her hair, then secured to the back of the headdress.

See also

References

  1. ^ a b c Abu-Sitta, p.117
  2. ^ a b c d e Khalidi, p.209
  3. ^ Biblical Researches in Palestine and the Adjacent Regions: A Journal of ... Edward Robinson, Eli Smith
  4. ^ 1911 encyclopedia.org
  5. ^ Bible Dictionary Horim as cave dwellers
  6. ^ The Guide to Israel. Zev, Yilnay. Jerusalem 1972, p.276.
  7. ^ Khalidi, 1992, p. 209-210.
  8. ^ Josephus "The Jewish War" (book IV, verse 447)
  9. ^ Ptolemy, V, 16, 6
  10. ^ Bayt Jibrin Before 1948 (1997) Nashashibi, Rami. Center for Research and Documentation of Palestinian Society, Birzeit University.
  11. ^ Second Book of Chronicles 14: 9, 10
  12. ^ a b c d e f g Eleutheropolis - (Bayt Jibrin) Studium Biblicum Franciscanum - Jerusalem. 2000-12-19 Cite error: The named reference "STF-J" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  13. ^ Beit Guvrin Schaalje, Jacqueline. Jewish Magazine. August 2000.
  14. ^ a b c d The City of Eleutheropolis Kloner, Amos. Studium Biblicum Franciscanum - Jerusalem. 2000-12-16.
  15. ^ Among the towns of Filastin mentioned as conquered by al-'As are: "Ghazzah (Gaza), Sabastiyah (Samaria), Nabulus (Shechem), Kaisariyyah (Cæsarea), Ludd (Lydda), Yubna, Amwas (Emmaus), Yafa (Joppa), Rafah, and Bait Jibrin. (Bil. 138), quoted in le Strange, 1890, p. 28
  16. ^ (Bil. 138), quoted in le Strange, 1890, p. 28
  17. ^ Muk., 174, quoted in le Strange, 1890, p.412
  18. ^ Jean Richard (1921) "The Crusaders c1071-c1291" reprited 2001 Cambridge University Press ISBN 0-521-62566-1 p. 140
  19. ^ Hütteroth, Wolf-Deiter and Kamal Abdulfattah (1977), Historical Geography of Palestine, Transjordan and Southern Syria in the Late 16th Century. Erlanger Geographische Arbeiten, Sonderband 5. Erlangen, Germany: Vorstand der Fränkischen Geographischen Gesellschaft. p. 149. Quoted in Khalidi, p. 209
  20. ^ Biblical researches in Palestine, 1838-52. A journal of travels in the year 1838. P. 57ff: Eleutheropolis 1856,
  21. ^ An original hand-coloured lithograph of Beit Jibrin by Louis Haghe, Beit Jibrin, or Eleutheropolis
  22. ^ Darwaza, Muhammad ´Izzat. Al -´arab wa-l-´uruba min al-qarn al-thalit hatta al-qarn al-rabi´ ´ashar al-hijri, vol 2 (Damascus, 1960), pp 138-140, quoted in Alexander Schölch (1993), p.189.
  23. ^ Schölch (1993), p. 234-235. Note 708 states that there is more information about them in Finn, Byeways,pp. 176-183 (in 1849 an elderly fellah from the district entreated Finn to somehow let the sultan in Istanbul know how severely the peasants were exploited by Muslih al-´Azza and his family.)
  24. ^ Schölch (1993), p. 237.
  25. ^ Schölch (1993), p. 236-237.
  26. ^ Finn (1878), Vol II, p. 305-308
  27. ^ Van de Velde: Reise durch Syrien und Palästina in den Jahren 1851 und 1852. Vol II, p.157; SWP, Judea, pp. 257f. and 266-74; Guérin, Victor: Description Géographique, Historique et Archéologique de la Palestine II pp. 307-309, (Amsterdam, 1969, reprint). All quoted in Schölch (1993), p. 189.
  28. ^ Furrer, Konrad: Wanderungen durch das Heilige Land, Zurich, 1891, pp 118-25. Quoted in Schölch (1993), p. 189.
  29. ^ Trisdam, p. 370
  30. ^ "Map of UN Partition Plan". United Nations. Retrieved 2007-12-06.
  31. ^ a b Morris (2004), p. 414
  32. ^ Morris (2004), pp. 462, 465
  33. ^ Morris (2004), p. 468
  34. ^ "Palestinian Refugees - A Personal Story". Badil.
  35. ^ a b c d e "Welcome to Bayt Jibrin". Palestine Remembered. Retrieved 2007-12-06.
  36. ^ Hebron District Stats from Village Statistics of 1945: A Classification of Land and Area ownership in Palestine (1970) Hadawi, Sami. The Palestine Liberation Organization Research Center
  37. ^ Baedecker, in his handbook, 1912, p.116-117, quoted in Khalidi (1992), p.209
  38. ^ Hebron District Stats from Village Statistics of 1945: A Classification of Land and Area ownership in Palestine (1970) Hadawi, Sami. The Palestine Liberation Organization Research Center
  39. ^ Palestinian costume before 1948 - by region Palestine Costume Archive. Retrieved on 01.15.2008.
  40. ^ Stillman, p.58-59, illustrated
  41. ^ Stillman, p.66, illustrated
  42. ^ Stillman illustrated plate 15, facing p.33

Bibliography

  • Abu-Sitta, Salman (2007), The Return Journey, London: Palestine Land Society, ISBN 0954903412
  • Blumberg, Arnold, (1980): A View from Jerusalem, 1849-1858. The Consular Diary of James and Elisabeth Anne Finn, Associated University Presses, ISBN 0 8386 2271 2
  • Finn, James (1878): Stirring Times, or Records from Jerusalem Consular Chronicles of 1853-1856. Vol.II, London.
  • Khalidi, Walid (1992), All That Remains, Washington D.C.: Institute for Palestine Studies, ISBN 0887282245
  • Morris, Benny (2004), The Birth of the Palestinian Refugee Problem Revisited, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0521009677
  • Schölch, Alexander (1993): Palestine in Transformation, 1856-1882, ISBN 0887282342,
  • Stillman, Yedida Kalfon (1979), Palestinian Costume and Jewelry, Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, ISBN 0826304907
  • le Strange, Guy (1890): Palestine under the Moslem,,
  • Tristram, H. B. (1865) The Land of Israel, a Journal of Travels in Palestine. (1876 version)

31°36′45.99″N 34°53′53.78″E / 31.6127750°N 34.8982722°E / 31.6127750; 34.8982722

External links

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bayt_Jibrin&oldid=219864139"