Samnites

Samnite soldiers depicted on a tomb frieze in Nola. From the 4th Century BCE.

The Samnites (Oscan: Safineis) were an ancient Italic people who lived in Samnium, which is located in Abruzzo which is in south-central Italy. They became involved in several wars with the Roman Republic until the 1st century BC. An Oscan-speaking people, the Samnites probably originated as an offshoot of the Sabines. The Samnites formed a confederation, consisting of four tribes: the Hirpini, Caudini, Caraceni, and Pentri. They allied with Rome against the Gauls in 354 BC, but later became enemies of the Romans and were soon involved in a series of three wars (343–341 BC, 327–304 BC, and 298–290 BC) against the Romans. Despite an overwhelming victory over the Romans at the Battle of the Caudine Forks (321 BC), the Samnites were eventually subjugated. Although severely weakened, the Samnites later helped Pyrrhus and some went over to Hannibal in their wars (280–275 BC and 218–201 BC) against Rome. They also fought from 91 BC in the Social War and later in the civil war (82 BC) as allies of the Roman consuls Papirius Carbo and Gaius Marius against Sulla, who defeated them and their leader Pontius Telesinus at the Battle of the Colline Gate (82 BC). They were eventually assimilated by the Romans and ceased to exist as distinct people.

The Samnites had economy focused upon livestock and agriculture. Samnite agriculture was highly advanced for its time, and they practiced transhumance. Aside from relying on agriculture the Samnites exported cereals, ceramics, textiles, bronze, iron, cabbages, olives, wine, olive oil, legumes, and vines. Their trade networks extended across Campania, Latium, Apulia, and Magna Graecia. The Samnites harvested large quantities of wool using loom weights, and they exported pottery and terracottas in large quantities as well.

Samnite society was stratified into cantons. Each city was a vicus. Many vici were grouped into a pagus, Many pagi were grouped into a touto. There were four Samnite touto, one for each of the Samnite tribes. Aside from this system of government, some Samnite cities had political entities similar to a senate. Sometimes that Samnites, who normally functioned not as one people, but with each tribe and settlement acting independently from one another, could unify. Such an event was incredibly rare.

Samnite religion worshipped both spirits called Numina and gods and goddesses. They believed that Numina and their gods such as Spes and Mefitis lived in everything from the rivers to the night. The Samnites would often sacrifice live animals such as birds, cows, fish, roe deer, oysters to their gods. They would also use bronze votive offerings, terracotta figurines pottery, sacred loom weights, coins, beverages, cakes, and animal statuettes to honor the gods. To honor the dead, Samnites would bury their dead with funerary items. Such as games, food, and impasto pottery. Many Samnites may have not actually been buried, instead an alternative like scattering ashes was used. Possibly because burial was reserved for the upper class. Superstititon dominated Samnite culture, they had magical chants that they believed would influence reality, they used protective amulets, and they used augers. Priests in Samnium managed Samnite religious festivals and could bind people to oaths. One of the primary parts of Samnite religion was its sanctuaries. They used ionic architecture and had many functions. Sanctuaries might have been used to benefit from trade networks, they may have marked the border between territories, and they may have been intertwined with government. Samnite sanctuaries may have also been used to reinforce a group identity.

In Samnite society men and women had traditional gender roles. Samnite women were described as "bejewled" and managed the households. Samnite women may still have been able to express political power and gather great amounts of wealth. They wore long sleeveless peplos and chatelaine. Men for supposed to preform jobs like hunting and fighting. They wore chitons, open plain rings and thick spiraling amulets ending in a snake head, and ring collars that were engraved with incised decorations and usually pierced with holes from which they suspended amulets and pendants. Gender neutral clothing in Samnium included bronze girdle made of leather and covered in bronze combined with a metal clasp, metal spirals that were preforated disk of metal, broad belts, gynaceium, and tunics. Samnites spent much of their free time hunting, drinking, and eating. Banqueting was important to Samnite society as it was used to build up social networks

Most Samnite cities and settlements were small, with most people living in hamlets. Their cities had well-ordered streets and monumental buildings such as lavish temples, dining complexes, houses, and sanctuaries dedicated to political, legal, theatrical, and religious business. Although they lacked buildings like agoras or forums. Roads called tratturo connected the cities, they also lead from summer to winter pastures. The cities were defended with walls and hillforts that used polygonal walling. Hillforts may have been very important to Samnite society, possibly taking part in the Samnite government

Samnite architecture resembled Greek architecture. Their houses were usually small farms. Some had a square module, a series of rooms with hearths centered around a courthouse, a small mortar line basin, a dolia, and other container vessels. Other houses had limestone columns, terracotta gutter spouts, tiled roofs, tuff façades, atriums with an impluvium and fake loggia, tabernae, dentil cornices supported by cubic capitals, palaestra, perforated railings set in an angular diamond design ran through ionic columns, two-story collanades, stoai, and were made of stone. Some architectural features were borrowed from the Etruscans. Such as dados, scales inserted under the Orthostates broken up with narrow blocks. Murals painted on floors were common in Samnite houses. They resembled illusions, were usually polychrome, and used black or red cement pavements that ran across tesserae. Tesserae would give the floor an appearance resembling weaving and brush strokes. Usually, this art were colorful and depicted mythological or Greek subjects. The first style of art in Pompeii was used by the Samnites. There were two kinds of this style. Worm-like, or miculatum, and woven-style, which is called oppus tessellatum. Miculatum style was made into marble and terracotta trays. Emblemata, or insets, would be inserted into the mosaic floor. Oppus tessellatum consisted of the using consisted of the using tesserae to give the floor an appearance resembling weaving.

Etymology

Samnite coin from the Social War. Depicts a man with a spear and a bull nearby

Origins of Samnite Language

Main article: Oscan language

At some point in prehistory, a population speaking a common language extended over both Samnium and Umbria. Edward Togo Salmon, a historian who studied the Samnites, conjectures that this common language was common Italic and puts forward a date of 600 BC, after which the common language began to separate into dialects. This date does not necessarily correspond to any historical or archaeological evidence. Linguist Julius Pokorny carries the etymology somewhat further back. He believes that the -a- sound was altered from an -o- by people living in Illyria during prehistory. Pokorny claims that this originates from the word *swo-bho-. Which would change its pronunciation over time for the purpose of communicating new grammar. This word derives from the word *swe-bho-. *Swe-bho- derives from the possessive adjective, *s(e)we-, which comes from the reflexive pronoun, *se-, "oneself" (the source of English self). Aside from the *swo-bho-, this also resulted in the names of many European peoples. For example, the Suebi, Semnones, Suiones; Senones; Serbs, Sorbs; Sabellians, Sabines, etc., as well as a large number of kinship terms. Other kinship terms derive from this as well.

Etymology of Samnites

Oscan inscription

The Indo-European root Saβeno or Sabh evolved into the word Safen. Which later became Safin. The word Safin may have been the first word used to describe the Samnite people and the Samnite Kingdom. Some archaeologists believe it refers to all the people of the Italian peninsula, others say just the people of Pentria. Safin could also be an adjective used in phrases like "the community of the Safin people" and "the leaders of the Safin people." Another possibility is that it refers to cult sites or sanctuaries in Samnium. It appears on graves near Abruzzo from the 5th century, as well as Oscan inscriptions and slabs in Penna Sant'Andrea. The last known usage of the word is on a coin from the Social War. Saf would go through a series of changes culminating in Saβnyom, the Oscan word for Samnium. This word evolved into many others, for example Saini, Saineis, Samnītēs, and Sabellī. Over time vowel weakening caused the ī sound to emerge. The Greek terms for the Samnites Saunìtai and Saunitis have unclear origins. Although. Saunìtai or Σαυνῖται also comes from the word Saβnyom. This word likely dates back to the 5th century BCE, when the Samnites first encountered the Greeks. Others suggest this word comes from the Greek word for javelin. Which is σαύνιον, or Saunion. The Samnites called themselves Safineis. The Romans used the term Samnites to describe the population of Samnium.

Etymology of Samnium

The word safin would evolve the Latino-Faliscan word sab- and the Osco-Umbrian word saf. These words would come to be part of the word Saβnyom, the Oscan word for Samnium. It also evolved into the word Safinim. Which was the Samnite word for their country, it means cult place of the Safin- people. Safinim is attested in one inscription and a coin legend. This coin legend is on a coin depicting a bull next to a warrior with a spear. This coin, dating back to the Social War, has the word Safinim engraved on it. According to Samnite legend, they originate from a grew of exiled Sabines who were guided by a bull to Samnium. This bull would go on to be sacrificed to Mars. At Samnite sanctuaries, bulls would continue to be sacrificed. Eventually, these sanctuaries became communal sites. Resulting in the word Safinim becoming the Oscan word for Samnites.

History

Origins and Early History

Map of Ancient Samnium

According to Strabo and coins made during the Social war, the Samnites were exiled from the Sabines. After the Sabines won a war against the Umbrians, they decided to dedicate the spoils of war to the god Mars, including the captured babies. When the babies reached adulthood, they, along with some Lucanians, were sent away as colonists. A bull would guide them to their new homeland. The bull would then be sacrificed to Mars. During the 5th Century the Samnites took over much of the region of Campania after the Etruscans left the region. However, we cannot be sure which Samnite cities and settlements took part in the campaign. Some candidates are the Caudini settlements of Caudium and Saticula. One possible reason for this conquest was to gain access to the fertile soil of the region. This land could have also been used to alleviate overpopulation. However, this would rely on the idea that the Samnites did not have a booming agricultural industry, which is contradicted by other evidence. The conquered land also gave the Caudini and Saticulans access to the Volturno River and other resources. Alongside conquests in Campania, the Samnites also expanded into former Greek territory once Greek hegemony in the region waned. More conflict between the Samnites and the Campanians, Volscians, Epirot Greeks, and other Latin communities would occur.

Samnite Wars

Main article: Samnite Wars

First Samnite War

Capua

Despite the fact that the earliest written record of the Samnites is a treaty from 354 BC setting their border at the Liris River, the Samnites first came into contact with the Romans after the Romans conquered the Volscians. Shortly thereafter, in 343 BCE, the Samnite Wars broke out. The First Samnite War was ignited due to a series of wars between the Samnites and other civilizations. The Samnites attacked the Sidinci. The Sidinci went to Capua for aid, this result in the Samnites besieging Capua and fighting the Campanians. The Campanians were defeated in two battles, and the Samnites left a strong military presence in the area. Consequently, the Campanians offered an alliance between themselves and the Romans. Since much wealth could be gained from an alliance between the two countries, the Romans agreed, and sent diplomats to negotiate with the Samnites. However, these negotiations failed, resulting in the Romans sending armies to attack the Samnites. Modern historians are doubtful of Livy's account of the cause of the war. It is likely it was oversimplified, or wrong. Some theories suggest that Livy was writing propaganda, and trying to portray the Romans in a positive light, or compare the Samnite Wars to other wars. The Romans would go on to win three victories at Mount Gaurus, Saticula, and Suessula. It is possible Livy exaggerated the importance of these victories, and that he exaggerated the devastation inflicted upon the Samnites. The war came to end after the Romans exploited these victories by invading Samnium. The Samnites started peace negotiations which ended the wars.

Second Samnite War

Lucanian depiction of the Battle of Caudine Forks

The Second Samnite war began when the city of Fregellae and Palaepolis were attacked by the Samnites. The Samnites also formed an alliance with the Vestini, when this news reached Rome, they sent a general to plunder their territory. Another theory suggests that economic motives one of the causes of the Second Samnite War. The Samnites may have wished to solidify their hold over crucial economic positions. The Romans may have also wished to use the economic prosperity of the city of Venafrum for their own benefit. Other Italic tribes joined the war. The Romans would fight the Ausoni, Sidinci, Dauni, Iapyges Vestini, Messapi, and the city of Tarentum during the war. While this was happening the Romans attack Palaepolis, After the Battle of Caudine Forks an armistice was formed between the Samnites and Romans. However, fighting would eventually resume, resulting in fighting in Saticula, Sora, and Bovianum. After many more years of fighting the Etruscans intervened on the side of the Samnites, however the Romans would defeat them. The war ended with the Romans campaigning into Apulia and Samnium. After the war the Romans took control over Bovianum, Fregellae, and forced the Samnites out of Apulia.

Third Samnite War

Roman Empire after the Samnite Wars

In 298 BCE the Third Samnite War broke out. It was caused by rising tensions between the Romans and Samnites over the Lucanians who had asked Rome for protection. On another front, the Romans and Etruscans were fighting due to treaties between the Romans and the Picentes. After a few years of fighting, the Etruscans campaigned against Rome, culminating in the Battle of Sentium. After the Battle of Aquilonia the Samnite Army was destroyed. With the defeat of Samnium, the Romans were able to take over the Sabines, Praetutii, and establish a colony at Venusia. The Samnites were also assimilated into Roman society. During the Samnite Wars the Romans adopted the Manipular System.

Later History

The Samnites were one of the Italian peoples that allied with King Pyrrhus of Epirus during the Pyrrhic War. After Pyrrhus left for Sicily, the Romans invaded Samnium and were crushed at the Battle of the Cranita hills, but after the defeat of Pyrrhus, the Samnites could not resist on their own and surrendered to Rome. Some of them joined and aided Hannibal during the Second Punic War, but most stayed loyal to Rome.The Samnites and several other Italic people rebelled against Rome and started the Social War, after Romans refused to grant them Roman citizenship. The war lasted almost four years, and resulted in a Roman victory. However, Samnites and other Italic tribes were granted Roman citizenship, to avoid another war. The Samnites supported the faction of Marius and Carbo in the civil war against Sulla. A Samnite by the name Pontius Telesinus lead the Samnites against Sulla. Pontius Telesinus worked with Lucanian leader named Marcus Lamponius, and possibly a third man named Tiberius Clepitius. They gathered an army of 40,000 men and fought a battle against Sulla at the Colline Gates. This battle was close, however Sulla won. Pontius was killed shortly after the battle. During the battle Pontius went to his men and told them that the wolves who were the oppressors of Italy would always be there unless the forest they lived in was cut down. Pontius is also recorded having told his men:

"We had concluded perpetual friendship with the Romans, which you yourselves violated by giving aid to the Sidicini, our enemies. When peace was concluded again, you made war upon the Neapolitans, our neighbors. Nor did it escape us that these things were part of a plan of yours to seize the dominion of all Italy. In the first battles, where you gained the advantage on account of the unskilfulness of our generals, you showed us no moderation. Not content with devastating our country and occupying towns and villages not your own, you planted colonies in them. Moreover, when we twice sent embassies to you and made many concessions, you treated us disdainfully, and demanded that we should yield you the supremacy and obey you, as though we were not a nation to make terms with but a conquered race. Thereupon you decreed this irreconcilable, implacable war against your former friends, descendants of the Sabines whom you made your fellow-citizens. On account of your insatiable cupidity we ought not to make a treaty with you. But I, having regard for the divine wrath (which you despised), and mindful of our former relationship and friendship, will permit each one of you to pass under the yoke safe and sound with the clothes you stand in, if you swear to give up all of our lands and strongholds and withdraw your colonies from the same, and never wage war against the Samnites again." — 

Colline Gates

Many scholars debate the veracity of this speech. Some claim that it is propaganda made during the first century for the Social War. According to Livy, Pontius spoke against the Romans for violating the terms of their surrender. Pontius stated:

“Will you never lack a reason for not abiding, in defeat, by your agreements? You gave hostages to Porsenna, and smuggled them out through trickery.”

Sulla ended up winning the war and was declared the dictator of Rome. He ordered all those who went against him to be punished. Thousands of people in Rome and all over Italy were brutally hunted down and killed. Samnites, who were some of the most prominent supporters of the Marians, were punished so severely that it was recorded, "some of their cities have now dwindled into villages, some indeed being entirely deserted." The Samnites did not play any prominent role in history after this, and they eventually became Latinized and assimilated into the Roman world.

Society

Economy

File:Transhumance Routes in ancient Samnium.png

Transhumance Routes in ancient Samnium

Samnite territory, Biferno River Valley and the Volturno River was simultaneously very fertile and lacking in certain natural resources. Resulting in a mixed economy primarily focused on pastoralism and agriculture. Despite the traditional view of the Samnites as backwards and barbaric, they used small fertile areas to practice highly developed forms of subsistence agriculture, animal husbandry, mixed farming, sheep farming, and smallholdings. Grain was one of the most important Samnite crops. During the fifth and fourth centuries BCE an increasing population combined with trade links to other Italians contributed to even further agricultural and urban development. This change is most drastic in Larinum. The city began as a major grain producer with a mill, threshing floor. It developed into a hub for all economic activity in the Biferno Valley, and it would trade with places like Apulia. Due to the mountainous terrain livestock such as sheep, horses, poultry, cattle, goats, and pigs were a pillar of the Samnite economy. Sheep was the most important animal. Aside from serving as a tradable good, livestock was valued as food. Samnite farmers practiced transhumance, or the seasonal movement of livestock from summer pastures to winter pastures. The prosperity of the Samnite agricultural industry likely resulted in conflicts between them and others. It is possible one of the reasons for the Samnite Wars was competition over the dominance of material resources.

File:Loom weight showing two dolphins.jpg

An ancient Samnite loom weight

Concurrent to the agricultural activity in Samnium, the Samnites produced trade goods such as cereals, cabbages, olives, wine, olive oil, legumes, and vines. Ceramics and textiles were also produced. Most of these ceramics were inscribed with then names of a god or another sacred figure. As evidenced by the many pottery workshops, kilns, and signs of wool manufacturing throughout Samnite settlements, the Samnites also had ironworking techniques and bronze production. They also imported goods from other parts of Italy and the Mediterranean, such as Campania, Latium, Apulia, and Magna Graecia.

Loom Weights

It is likely that wool and leather were harvested in significant quantities. As evidenced by the many loom weights found in the region. Most Samnite loom weights used incised lines, dots, oval stamps, gem impressions, or imprints from metal signet rings to create patterns. Pyramidal, star pattern, dotted or incised cross motif decorations could cover the loom weight. The motifs could have been shaped like leaves, flowers, pomegranates, or mythological figures. One loom weight found in Locri is decorated with a gem impression of a satyr playing a lyre. Sometimes Greek words would be incised into loom weights. Possibly to indicate the order in which the threads should be woven in various textile patterns, or to indicate the maker or the quality. It may also be shorthand for the weight of the loom weight, or even the weight or dimensions of the finished cloth.

Amphorae and Pottery

The Samnites also produced amphorae, terracottas, and impasto pottery with black gloss. During the Late Samnite period, pottery and amphorae were varnished with black. Amphorae was often used to store wine. Pottery in Ancient Samnium came from many different places. Adriatic amphorae are rare, instead Rhodian amphorae are more common. Small of amounts of North African amphorae are also present. After the urbanization of Samnite society during the Late Samnite Period Greco-Italic amphorae became more popular. Other kinds of amphorae existed. Such as North African Punic or Tripolitanian amphorae. Samnite amphorae, along with other pottery and ceramics, often had patterns on them. Sometimes they had stamps. Usually of Rhodes. Some pots from Samnium, were used to make the resin which would then be used to make people's skin smooth. One example of Samnite pottery was a bell krater painted by an Amykos Painter. On it, is a depiction of a man and a woman.

Government

A depiction of the Samnite Pagus-vicus system

A Samnite settlement, or a vicus, would be grouped into cantons with other cities called a Pagus. Each Pagi had a leader called a Meddix, and they would be grouped into a touto. There was one touto for each of the four Samnite tribes. The Caraceni, Caudini, Hirpini, Pentri. Each touto would be governed by an elected official called a Meddix Tuticus. The Meddix Tuticus was elected annually and had supreme executive and judicial power. This was not the only political body in Samnium. Councils and assemblies similar to a Senate existed. Some Senates were located at the capitals of the Samnite tribes. For instance, the Pentrian Senate was located at Bovianum. It is unclear if these forms of government existed before the Roman conquest. Despite these democratic institutions, Samnite society was still dominated by a small group of aristocratic families.

Samnite society was not a unified entity. Each tribe functioned independently from the others. However, a union similar to the Latin League would occasionally form between the tribes. Such an alliance would be primarily militaristic, with a commander and chief enforcing all laws enacting by the alliance. Legislation would be passed by leading men from each tribe. They would have to all agree before a bill could become a law. The Samnite tribes would rarely unify, and even if they did some tribes still might not join the alliance. It is known that the Pentri, Caudini, Carracini and Hirpini would have been part of such a league. However, it is unclear the Frentani were a part of the league. The relevance of the tribe to this organization may be exaggerated. It is possible that cities were more important in this organization, rather than the tribe.

This system of government maintained itself after the Roman conquest of Samnium. Albeit with some reductions in power. The touto and pagus would function as miniature Republics, while the vicus would continue to function normally. The only interference from the Romans would be that the Municipum held authority over all of the previous institutions and it could override them. The prefectures had little authority over the Samnites and other Italic peoples.

Military

Caspestrano Warrior. A statue of an ancient Samnite warrior.

Samnite soldiers wore a breast plate called a kardiophylax. The kardiophylax is a small single disc breastplate fastened by straps, attached around points. It passed around the shoulders, chest, and back. This kind of armor was worn by Samnite soldiers before they developed the Triple-disc cuirass. Even after being made obsolete, it would still be used by the Samnites as a sign of status. Triple-disc cuirasses are generally considered to be a Samnite cuirass. However, some contest this point of view. This kind of armor was adopted due to the fact that it offered more protection than the Kardiophylax. Samnite armor was usually held together by bronze bands. It was also likely made of wicker, wood, or hides. Aside from armor for the chest, the Samnites also had round helmets likely based off Greek military equipment as well as long shields similar to a scutum. One Samnite chieftain is depicted with a chalcidian helmet. Usually, Samnite soldiers had broad leather belts covered in bronze. Likely for the purpose of protecting their midsection. Greaves were also used by the Samnite military, although not in the form Livy described. When attacking an enemy, Samnite soldiers had heavy thrusting spears and javelins with throwing loops. Samnite spears generally had butt spikes as well as varying point sizes. With the smallest being 10cm long. Maces were common weaponry in ancient Samnium, although not as common as spears and javelins. Most maces had heads made of heavy undecorated pieces of iron. A hole or a socket was put in the mace head to host the handle. Axes were also used. However, this was incredibly rare. They may have primarily been symbols of power.

Culture

Religion

Deities

Numina

Face of Mefitis

Spirits called Numina were prominent in Samnite mythology. It was essential to establish proper relations with these spirits. The Numina were vaguely defined. They may or may not have had human forms, and could have been genderless, nameless, and kinless. The Romans used the term Numina to refer to vague and impersonal spirits. Eventually, the Numina evolved into the Samnite gods and goddesses. They lived in particular localities and they excised certain powers. Their powers possibly amounted to nothing more than divine will. Numina lived in everything. They lived in houses, rivers, mountains, the day, the night. The most famous spirit-haunted place in Samnium was the valley of Ampsanctus.

Gods

Few Samnite gods are known, but some names have survived. Manty Samnite gods were also Roman gods. For example, Vulcan, Loesius, Flora, Apollo, Angitia, and Diana were all worshipped. The Samnites worshipped Mefitis, the goddess of the foul-smelling gasses of the earth. The household was the center of Samnite of Samnite religion. Samnite religion preserved the family as if it were its chief object. Samnite religion also emphasized birth, marriage, and death. Which were, in their view, the most important things that could happen in a household. This is showcased by one of their gods. Recorded by the Romans as genetrix, obsterix, and nutrix, was the goddess of happiness and childbirth. Some gods like Fortuna, Fides, and Spes did not gain importance until after the Roman conquest. The most important god in the Samnite religion was Mars. Most bronze Samnite idols are of Mars.

Practices

Sacrifice

Italian Votive Offering from the 4th Century BCE.

The Samnites had religious sanctuaries dedicated to sacrifice. 72 percent of the sacrificed animals were pigs, 28 percent were sheep and goats. Male pigs were two times more likely to be sacrificed then female pigs. Other animals that could be sacrificed were birds, cows, fish, roe deer, oysters. According to Livy the sacrifices were practiced in a 200 square feet area, which was fenced off and covered in linen cloth. Livy also claims the Samnites had a practice called ver sacrum. Where all the infants born in a particular year were dedicated to a god and would be exiled from the community upon reaching adulthood. Some scholars, such as Oakley and De Cazanove, believe Livy is likely lumping together many different practices and groups. It is likely that Livy was trying to purposely paint the Samnites in a negative light. Other scholars, such as Coareli and Tagliamonte, believe Livy is accurately describing Samnite practices.

Ver Sacrum

Main article: Ver sacrum

Bronze Bull from the Ver Sacrum

The Ver Sacrum, or Sacred Spring, was a religious practice practiced by both ancient Italic civilizations and Romans. In a Ver Sacrum all the offspring of plants and animals were now property of the gods. Human offspring would be exiled from their homeland once they reached adulthood. It has been suggested that this was done to alleviate overpopulation. However, overpopulation was not a problem for the Samnites, as they had highly developed systems of agriculture. The Samnites believed that the ver sacrum was the origin of their society. The found myth of the Samnites was that bull sent by the war god Mamers, who was the Samnite equivalent of Mars , to lead the Samnites to a new country once they had been exiled Ancient sources claim that all of these sacrifices would be made to Apollo or Mars instead of Mamers. Bulls had symbolic connections to the military in Samnium. The Hirpini believed that they were guided by a wolf to their land. Hence the name Hirpini, from Hirpus, meaning wolf. These myths have often been associated with the founding myth of Rome. Despite how often the ver sacrum appears in ancient literature, very little architectural evidence of this practice exists.

Offerings

In the 5th Century BCE, Samnites offered weapons taken from defeated enemies to their gods. By the third century BCE, this practice had been replaced with other votive offerings. Votive bronze and terracotta figurines, which were dedicated to their gods. Pottery, coins, beverages, cakes, and animal statuettes were also offered. Sacred loom weights would have been used weave sacred cloth. They could have also been used to supply the inhabitants of the sanctuary. There are other explanations for the usage of loom weights. They could have been used for weighing votive offerings, or as markers left attached to woven cloth dedications. Many loom weights found in Italy are inscribed with names or images of deities. The gifts offered to the gods needed to be important to the populous.

Superstitions

The Samnites had magical chants which were used at harvests, festivals, and marriages. While chanting, the chanters would have faces painted with red. Other ceremonies would be performed at weddings which would promote fertility and bring good fortune. The Samnites also used birds to tell omens. Another Samnite superstition was the idea that magical amulets could protect their owners from harm. Often the receiver was a young woman who was now old enough to bear children. These amulets were usually made from expensive materials that showcased wealth. Like beads or pendants.

Funerary Practices

The Samnites believed in an afterlife. They would bury their dead. In order to bury the body, it would be fully dressed and laid out in a supine position. The head would be set upon an object. After burying a body, they would give them items which would ease their journey into the afterlife. One example is, they would be given games, food, impasto pottery, and some sort of purification rite. Bowls have been found in Samnite graves. They may have been used in some sort of funerary feast. Sometimes games would be played near tombs. The Samnites believed that the Manes, or spirits of the dead needed to be put to rest through combat. Many Samnite graves had bronze and iron ornaments. Gold and silver were incredibly rare, on account of how hard they were to import to Samnium. Women were often buried with spindles and loom weights. Sometimes, especially during the orientalizing period, weaponry began to be put in graves. Mostly, spears. These spears varied greatly in dimensions, were usually paired, and usually had butt spikes. It is debated if people would be honored after death. However, many Samites were buried with goods relating to the military. Which may have been a way of honoring the dead, rather than indicating that societal role. A Samnite grave near a road by Gravina contains items which some suggest indicate that the person buried there was a male, and high-ranking official. In this grave, a strigil, a lance, and materials necessary for the preparation of food. Before the 5th Century BCE ornately decorated burial places occupied an important part of Samnite religion. The importance of graves reached its most prominent position during the Samnite Wars. Afterwards, a significant decline in Samnite burial places occurs. Suggesting a decline in the importance of graves in Samnite religion. Graves would be kept track of with wooden planks, then stones, then tiles. Usually, Samnite graves were lined with gravel to facilitate drainage. It is possible that most Samnites were not buried, instead other practices were used. Such as scattering their ashes. One theory for why this happened is that it was hard to access the resources needed for burial, or the social status required for burial.

Priests

Priests supervised and regulated festivals. They defined the limits to sanctuaries and kept records. Samnite priests likely formed the basis of Augustus' seviri augustales. Samnite priests also had linen books which they would use to manage sacrifices and bind people to oaths. During the Samnite Wars they tried binding the Samnite army to these oaths. The political leaders of Samnite society. The Meddix and Meddix Tuticus were likely also involved in religious life.

Sanctuaries

Architecture

Samnite sanctuary complex at Pietrabbondante. The sanctuary at Pietrabbondante was likely at the top of Samnite social hierarchy.

Samnite sanctuaries in the third century BCE were Ionic. They consisted of a temple and several surrounding buildings. After this temple was destroyed, a new sanctuary was built. The new temple was built on a podium. It was likely prostyle and portico, with a single cellarette. This temple was important to Samnite political life in the second century BCE. Parts of the building were dedicated by magistrates. These two sanctuaries were not the only ones built. Another theatre complex, built shortly before the Social War, was a portico temple with a podium and the three cellarettes. This sanctuary had long porticos and stairs leading to the podium. In front of the podium, two altars stand. They are aligned with the central and eastern cellarettes. It was flanked by two lateral porticoes. This temple has a theatre. the theatre has polygonal walls which are decorated with telamones. The sanctuary at Alfedena was an open-air sanctuary. It was surrounded by a portice, and it had a shrine at its center. This sanctuary has been described as looking like a half-way between a house, open grove, and a roofed temple.From the fourth century BCE onwards non-urban sanctuaries began to be constructed. However, after the late third century BCE these sanctuaries would become much more elaborate. This is probably caused by a desire to display wealth. Or it could be caused by a shift in social organization. It is also possible these were not causes of the monumentalization of the sanctuaries, but instead they were a prerequisite. Epigraphic evidence suggests that instead, powerful families such as the Stattii pushed for the architectural change.

Functions

Profit

File:Map of Metapontum.png

Map of sanctuary sites in Metapontum

The majority of sanctuaries were built in the third century BCE. There are numerous theories to explain why. One is that the Samnites used them to benefit from the Mediterranean trade networks. However, it is unclear how the Samnites would have made money off these temples. It is also uncertain how any money made from these would be spent. Another theory is that the sanctuaries were the areas where government business was conducted. They could have also used to them to make profits from the practice of transhumance and also house herdsman. Many gods worshipped in the Sanctuaries such as Alba Fucens or Hercules had connections to transhumance. Suggesting that the temples not just attracted a crowd of farmers, but they also benefited from agriculture in some way. Some, such as Iñaki Sagarna, believe that the practice of positioning of sanctuaries nearby transhumance routes was only developed after the Roman conquest of Samnium. Most examples we have of connections between Hercules and trade, especially sheep and cattle trade date to times where Rome controlled Samnium. It is possible these sanctuaries existed before the Romans conquered the Samnites, however there is little evidence for this. Hercules was commonly worshipped long before connections between him and pastoralism were established. His role as patron of herdsman and merchants was still important, however he was venerated long before he was the patron of these trades.

Territory Markers

Another kind of sanctuary was the territorial marker sanctuary. These sanctuaries functioned as border markers between urban and rural areas and meeting places between bordering communities. For example, the Carricini would be separated from the Marrucini by sanctuaries littered with bronze statutes. The sanctuary at Pietrabbondante likely was also used by the wealthy to showcase Samnite unity.

Aside from marking the borders between communities. Contact between different communities would have been important to the development of sanctuaries. The areas between communities and contact between though would have lead to the sanctuaries being built. Sanctuaries would be the area where the sovereignty of the city manifested. This analysis of the archaeological remnants may not be accurate, as our archaeological evidence may not be complete, our interpretation of the evidence may also be wrong. Despite the fact that it is somewhat imprudent to try and catalogue all non-urban sanctuaries as border marker, it is likely some sanctuaries were border markers. Although a rigid territory organization seems unlikely.

Politics

Many scholars, such as Letta, believe that sanctuaries had a function in the Samnite government. According to their theory the sanctuaries would serve as meeting places between the different groups making up the Samnites. Different sanctuaries served as meeting places for different levels of government. Sanctuaries outside settlements would mainly be dedicated to the Pagi. Urban sanctuaries were also primarily dedicated to the Pagus. Sanctuaries located in the direct neighborhood of a Vicus, would be dedicated to that Vicus. These sanctuaries would exclusively serve the residents of that Vicus. There would also be rural sanctuaries, dedicated to the tribe. Each Samnite tribe had their own tribal sanctuary. After the Roman conquest of Samnium, a new kind of sanctuary was created. This new sanctuary was located outside urban centers and was dedicated to the Municipum. There are problems with this theory. Mainly, epigraphic evidence is necessary to definitively assert the role of a sanctuary. However, epigraphic evidence of this kind is rare. In one sanctuary found near Fontecchio has an inscription stating that the temple was dedicated to Jupiter. Since the roles of Samnite officials and governing bodies are unclear, historians cannot be sure on whether or not this means the temple was dedicated to the Vicus or the Pagus.

Practices

File:Lex aedis Furfensis.png

Lex aedis Furfensis

Inside sanctuaries many different gods would have been worshipped. It has been suggested that different sanctuaries would venerate different gods, and different aspects of gods. If this were true it would imply the Samnite sanctuaries excluded outsiders and reinforced group identity. The Samnites are known to have been xenophobic. One Samnite ritual has them formally banishing outsiders from their country. In certain Oscan texts, rules are laid out for a temple that worshipped Hercules. The sanctuary is specifically supposed to serve the inhabitants of Nola and Abella by resolving property disputes between them. This sanctuary, and the land around it, seems to belong to no one. This could imply the sanctuaries were instead supposed to mark a lack of borders.

One ancient Roman law called the lex aedis Furfensis concerns a sanctuary dedicated to Jupiter Liber. It was made by a magistrate and a priest of Furfo. This law states that if someone stole a sacred object, the aedile could determine the amount of the fine. The law also makes an unclear claim. The text states "idque veicus Furf[ensis] mai[or] pars, FIFELTARES sei apsolvere volent sive condemnare." The meaning of these statements is unclear, mostly due to the unclear word fifeltares. This part of the law could imply that the vicus held a special position. The text could also state that many different vici were working together in a pagus. The status of the sanctuary determines whether or not it served the vicus or the pagus. It could also imply that the pagus-vicus was not universal throughout Samnium. Other Samnite inscriptions such as those at Trasaco or Saepinum rarely mention a vicus or a pagus. This showcases that evidence for a connection between Samnite sanctuaries and the Samnite government is limited. With most epigraphic evidence being small in number, or nonexistent.

Decline

As Roman influence in Samnium grew, many sanctuaries became abandoned. They would have been replaced by Municipal centers as sanctuaries became obsolete. An alternative explanation is that the Samnites tried to Romanize themselves out of a desire to become Roman. This idea has been challenged by more modern studies as there is no definitive evidence for it. The prevailing theory as to how the Samnites were Romanized is that the spread of Roman religious items and temples lead to the adoption of Roman culture. Rome also took a more active approach in Romanizing the Samnites. Normally Rome would have not forced its culture upon the Samnites, however this time they destroyed the sanctuaries. Another way the Romans wiped out Samnite culture was through urbanization. The increasing urbanization of Samnium lead to more rural sanctuaries being abandoned. The surviving sanctuaries were located within a favorable position in the new municipal order. Even then, the power of the Sanctuaries decreased. Sanctuaries were no longer were relevant to the entirety of a vicus or pagus. Roman styles of architecture also became prominent in the sanctuaries built after the Roman conquest.

Daily Life

Status of Women and Men

Samnite warrior. Warriorship was a traditionally male gender role.

It is unclear how women were treated in Samnite society. High ranking Samnite women may have been responsible for managing the household. According to Horace, not just did Samnite women manage the household, they also had a reputation for severity. However, they definitely demonstrated their wealth through their apparel. This suggests that Samnite women may have been able to acquire large amounts of wealth on their own, although they may have simply been showcasing their male counterpart's wealth. Samnite women did possess some political power, notably in areas involving the symposium. Cultural attitudes towards women in Samnium generally revolved around the distinction between men, who were supposed to be warriors, and women, who were supposed to be "bejeweled." Although there were gender roles, they could be fluid. Many Samnite men have been found buried with goods typically associated with women. Possibly meaning that these goods were actually gender neutral. Instead, they may have been funerary offerings. Women have also been buried with goods typically associated with warriors, which were usually men. Although this was incredibly rare. It is possible that the women buried with these were honorary men, or that these burial goods were simply indicators of status. Typically, Samnite women were buried with spindles. Weaving was a very common practice amongst Samnite women. According to the geographer Strabo the Samnites would take ten virgin women and ten young men. These people would be selected based off whether or not the Samnites considered them to be the best representation of their sex. Following this, the best women would be given to the best male, then the second-best women to the second-best male. This would continue until all 20 people had been assigned to one another. If the people involved dishonor themselves, they will be removed and forcefully separated from their partner.

Clothing

Samnite bronze belt with claps

The kind of clothes Samnite people wore conveyed certain meanings. It was not uncommon for clothes to express one's social status. Their clothing included a chiton for men, and a long sleeveless peplos for women. Some women did wear chitons. However, they preferred the Greek style chiton. Samnite style chitons were reserved for ritual occasions. Most Samnite clothes were loose, pinned, and generally not stitched or sewn. It was also draped and folded. Men often wore open plain rings and thick spiraling amulets ending in a snake head. A ring collar was used by men. It was usually engraved with incised decorations, and it was usually pierced with holes from which they suspended amulets and pendants. This piece of clothing was given to the man in boyhood, and never removed. A bronze girdle made of leather and covered in bronze combined with a metal clasp would be the most valuable item a Samnite could ever own. Women wore chatelaine. It was rectangular and had a central section consisting of mail. A number of metal spirals were present across the chain's spiral. Each one had a preforated disk of metal. This kind of clothing, together with the ring collars for men, were likely of Picentine origin. Samnite men and women would wear broad belts. Some were gilded. Most belts were bronze, fastened into holes by hooks, and were likely lined with cloth or leather. Many Samnite belt clasps have been found on Samnite statues of Heracles. Samnite warriors would wear Greek gynaceium made of metal or bronze. It was fastened with straps. Tunics were common amongst not just the Samnites, but also the Etruscans. Bearskins were common clothing in Samnium. One ionic sculpture showcases a Samnite woman in native Samnite clothing and a white cape.

Daunian krater

Pastime

In the Samnite's free time, Samnites often hunted. This was not the only kind of entertainment practiced by the Samnites. Drinking and eating was very important to the life of Samnites. Aside from serving as entertainment, it served as social purposes. People would often use banquets as time to build up social networks. When the Samnites banqueted, they generally did it using a large container or mixing vessel, serving vessels, and small pieces which were used by individuals for individual consumption. The large containers were usually amphorae or craters. Serving vessels were usually dippers, or jugs. The smaller vessels were usually cups, beakers, kylikes, and kantharoi. Many Samnite vessels were imported from places like Etruria. For example, bronze basins, cauldrons, and oinochoai. Iron skewers, knives, and bronze bowls would often be imported from Daunia. Samnite kitchenware generally had lustrous surfaces and three lobed rims. Wine was consumed by the Samnites, although some wines were rarely distributed amongst adult men. Whilst eating, the host would distribute food and drink to the guests.

Settlements and Architecture

Cities

Ampitheater in Saepinum

The majority of Samnite settlements were small. Most people lived in hamlets and had to work for a living. Larger settlements existed. Such as Saepinum and Caiatia. Samnite cities had well-ordered streets and monumental buildings. Their cities had no buildings similar to a forum or an Agora. Although they did have lavish temples, dining complexes, houses, and sanctuaries dedicated to political, legal, theatrical, and religious business. Other civil and military buildings received less lavish treatment than similar buildings in other cultures. Roads called tratturi would be spread throughout the cities. They connected to form a main road called a tratturo. The tratturo lead from summer pastures in the Apennines to the grazing areas in the lowlands for the winter. During the Samnite Wars many cities began to develop walls and other defensive fortifications. Samnites cities had rough and crude walls. Saepinum's walls were ten feet thick. Allifae's walls were thirty feet high. Monte Varino has walls stretching three kilometers. Most walls were located by the crest of a hill with no other defenses nearby. Indicating that the walls were built for the purpose of allowing the defending army to retreat and regroup, rather than protecting the city. City gates were heavily fortified on the left side, but not the right. This was done to force soldiers to attack the city on the side they were not holding their shield on.

Hillforts built with polygonal walling may have been either another common defensive fortification, or a form of settlement that represented a transitional phase between a more rural society and a more urban one. It is unclear if these hillforts were permanent defenses they may have only been inhabited temporarily. Polygonal walling and polygonal construction in general, may have been spread to the rest of Italy by the Samnites. Hillforts would have been important to the political structure of Samnium. Some academics, like Maurizio Gaultieri, have gone as far as to suggest that the vicus-pagi-touto system, may have been a vicus, pagi, oppidum, touto system. With the oppidum representing the forts.

Architecture

Samnite house in Pompeii

Samnite peristyle in Pompeii often resembled that of Greek architecture. Wealthy patrons would commission the local architects and builders to build houses. Small, personal farms were common buildings. One farmhouse found near Campobasso consists of a square module, which was likely a stable house, and a series of rooms with hearths centered around a courthouse. The house has a small mortar line basin, a dolia, and other container vessels. Indicating that these materials were used for the process and storage of produce. Other Samnite houses had limestone columns, terracotta gutter spouts, tiled roofs, and were made of stone.These houses had tuff façades. The façades had many tabernae and dentil cornices supported by cubic capitals. Palaestra, two-story collanades, and stoai were used by the Samnites. They borrowed them from the Greeks. Perforated railings set in an angular diamond design ran through ionic columns. The bases of architecture would be elevated by using dados or scales inserted under the Orthostates. This was borrowed from the Etruscans. Orthostates would be broken up with narrow blocks. It would reflect later divisions of the wall into other scenes. These scenes would be divided by columns, trees, and other verticals. Most houses consisted of atriums and peristyles. Large blocks of stone were put along the base of the wall. This was combined with a foundation topped with smaller blocks laid in courses. Atriums had an impluvium and fake loggia. The impluvium was set on a signinum floor. Samnite architectural styles used heavy layers of plaster spread over rubble walls which were also carved to resemble cut blocks of stone. This kind of architecture, called cemented rubble architecture, was created during the Late Samnite Period. Smooth faces and drafted edges were also common. In order to distinguish the many different faux marbles and expensive stones color was used. Coloring could still be inconsistent. The city of Pompeii had cella which were constructed in the Late Samnite Period.

Art

Samnite art

Most floors in Samnite house had murals painted on them that resembled an illusion. Other murals were usually polychrome and used black or red cement pavements that ran across tesserae which and were outlined with geometric designs. The first style of art in Pompeii was used by the Samnites. it originates from Greek painters coming to Italy and painting for the aristocrats. Although it borrows from the Etruscans as well as the Greeks. These paintings and murals were often polychrome. Usually, they are colorful and depict mythological or Greek subjects. Tesserae would be arranged by the artist in order to give the appearance of brush strokes. There were two kinds of this style. Worm-like, or miculatum, and woven-style, which is called oppus tessellatum. Miculatum style was made into marble and terracotta trays. Emblemata, or insets, would be inserted into the mosaic floor. Oppus tessellatum consisted of the using tesserae to give the floor an appearance resembling weaving.

Aside from these murals, other works of Samnite art have survived to the modern day. On the walls of a sanctuary at Pietrabbondate there is an unidentifiable relief that is possibly an atlas. Another work of art in Isernia depicts two helmeted warriors. This piece may be Samnite, or it may be Roman.

List of tribes

• Caraceni
• Caudini
• Hirpini
• Pentri

Notable Samnites

Gentes of Samnite origin

• Cassia gens
• Decimia gens
• Egnatia gens
• Gavia gens
• Gellia gens
• Herennia gens
• Obellia gens
• Ofilia gens
• Oppidia gens
• Opsidia gens
• Otacilia gens
• Paccia gens
• Pacidia gens
• Papia gens
• Papinia gens
• Percennia gens
• Petreia gens
• Pontia gens
• Scutaria gens
• Vibia gens

Leaders of the Samnites

• Gaius Pontius ca. 320s BC
• Gellius Egnatius ca. 296 BC

Social War leader

• Gaius Papius Mutilus 90-89
• Pontius Telesinus, 82 BC

Romans of Samnite origin

• Gaius Cassius Longinus - assassin of Julius Caesar
• Pontius Pilate - the 5th Prefect of the Roman province of Judaea from AD 26–36. He ordered the crucifixion of Jesus

Catholic Popes

• Pope Felix IV- Catholic Pope from July 12 526 to September 22 530

See also

• Frentani
• Samnite Wars
• List of ancient Italic peoples
• Sabellians

Further reading

• Salmon, Edward Togo. Samnium and the Samnites. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1967.
• Forsythe, Gary. A Critical History of Early Rome: From Prehistory to the First Punic War. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2005.
• Jones, Howard. Samnium: Settlement and Cultural Change: the Proceedings of the Third E. Togo Salmon Conference On Roman Studies. Providence, RI: Center for Old World Archaeology and Art, 2004.
• Paget, R. F. Central Italy: An Archaeological Guide; the Prehistoric, Villanovan, Etruscan, Samnite, Italic, and Roman Remains, and the Ancient Road Systems. 1st U.S. ed. Park Ridge, NJ: Noyes Press, 1973.
• Salvucci, Claudio R. A Vocabulary of Oscan: Including the Oscan and Samnite Glosses. Southampton, Pa.: Evolution Pub., 1999.
• Stek, Tesse. Cult Places and Cultural Change In Republican Italy: A Contextual Approach to Religious Aspects of Rural Society After the Roman Conquest. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 2010.

External links

• Ross Cowan, The Samnite Pilum