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Samnite society was a unified entity. The Samnite tribes functioned independently from one another. Despite this, they could organize into a union similar to the [[Latin League]]. It would have been very difficult to get the Samnite tribes to unify. If they did the alliance would have been a primarily militaristic organization. Leaders from each tribe would have to agree on a policy proposal before it could become a law. The laws enacted by this league would be enforced by a [[Commander-in-chief|commander and chief]].<ref name=":8" /><ref name=":2" />
Samnite society was a unified entity. The Samnite tribes functioned independently from one another. Despite this, they could organize into a union similar to the [[Latin League]]. It would have been very difficult to get the Samnite tribes to unify. If they did the alliance would have been a primarily militaristic organization. Leaders from each tribe would have to agree on a policy proposal before it could become a law. The laws enacted by this league would be enforced by a [[Commander-in-chief|commander and chief]].<ref name=":8" /><ref name=":2" />

This system of government maintained itself after the Roman conquest of Samnium. The ''touto'' and ''pagus'' would function as miniature Republics, while the ''vicus'' would continue to function normally. The only interference from the Romans would be that the [[Municipium|Municipum]] held authority over all of the previous institutions, and could override them.<ref name=":12" />


== Settlements and Houses ==
== Settlements and Houses ==

Revision as of 13:55, 7 January 2022

Samnite soldiers from a tomb frieze in Nola 4th century BC.

The Samnites were an ancient Italic people who lived in Samnium in south-central Italy. They became involved in several wars with the Roman Republic until the 1st century BC. An Oscan-speaking people, the Samnites probably originated as an offshoot of the Sabines. The Samnites formed a confederation, consisting of four tribes: the Hirpini, Caudini, Caraceni, and Pentri.[1] They allied with Rome against the Gauls in 354 BC, but later became enemies of the Romans and were soon involved in a series of three wars (343–341 BC, 327–304 BC, and 298–290 BC) against the Romans.[2] Despite an overwhelming victory over the Romans at the Battle of the Caudine Forks (321 BC), the Samnites were eventually subjugated. Although severely weakened, the Samnites later helped Pyrrhus and some went over to Hannibal in their wars (280–275 BC and 218–201 BC) against Rome. They also fought from 91 BC in the Social War and later in the civil war (82 BC) as allies of the Roman consuls Papirius Carbo and Gaius Marius against Sulla, who defeated them and their leader Pontius Telesinus at the Battle of the Colline Gate (82 BC).[3] They were eventually assimilated by the Romans, and ceased to exist as distinct people.[4]

Etymology

At some point in prehistory, a population speaking a common language extended over both Samnium and Umbria. Salmon conjectures that it was common Italic and puts forward a date of 600 BC, after which the common language began to separate into dialects. This date does not necessarily correspond to any historical or archaeological evidence; developing a synthetic view of the ethnology of proto-historic Italy is an incomplete and ongoing task.

Social War coin depicting soldier with a spear and sword nearby a bull

Linguist Julius Pokorny carries the etymology somewhat further back. Conjecturing that the -a- was altered from an -o- during some prehistoric residence in Illyria, he derives the names from an o-grade extension *swo-bho- of an extended e-grade *swe-bho- of the possessive adjective, *s(e)we-, of the reflexive pronoun, *se-, "oneself" (the source of English self). The result is a set of Indo-European tribal names (if not the endonym of the Indo-Europeans): Germanic Suebi and Semnones, Suiones; Celtic Senones; Slavic Serbs and Sorbs; Italic Sabelli, Sabine, etc., as well as a large number of kinship terms.[5]

While the Romans called the population of Samnium Samnites, they called themselves Safineis, and their country Safinim.[4][6] Safinim means cult place of the Safin- people. The root word Safin- is much older than the word Safinim. Safin- appears of graves near Abruzzo dating back to the 5th century. As well as Oscan inscriptions and slabs in Penna Sant'Andrea. The meaning of the word is poorly understood. Safin- appears as a noun used to describe the Samnite kingdom of Samnium, but also as an adjective used in phrases like "the community of the Safin people" and "the leaders of the Safin people." It could also refer to cult sites or a sanctuary in Samnium. This, combined with linguistic data, led archaeologists to believe that the word Safin referred to all the people in the Italian Peninsula.[7] But it could also just refer to the people in Pentria. The last known usage of the word is on a coin from the Social War.[8]

Safin comes from Safen which comes from the Indo-European root Saβeno or Sabh.[9] This was the first time it was used to describe the Samnite people.[4][10]It later became Sab- in Latino-Faliscan and Saf- in Osco-Umbrian.[4] Eventually this root would come to be used in Saβnyom, the Oscan word for Samnium. The words Saini and Saineis would also come from this root. The Greek terms, Saunitai and Saunitis, remain outside the group. Nothing is known of their origin. The Latin names for the Samnites, Samnītēs and Sabellī also derived from the root word Saβnyom. The ī sound emerged due to vowel weakening. ΣαύνΙον, or Saunìtai, the Greek word for the Samnites, also coming from Saβnyom, likely dates back to the middle of the 5th century BCE, when the Samnites first encountered the Greeks.[10] Some theories incorrectly suggest that this word, comes from the Greek word Saunion. The word Saunion means "javelin."[11]

Safinim is also attested in one inscription and a coin legend. On a coin from the Social War a bull next to a warrior with a spear with the word Safinim engraved on it.[12] According to Samnite legend, a group of Sabines were expelled from their homes and guided to the land where the Samnites would soon live by a bull. The Samnites would then proceed to sacrifice the bull to Mars. Later at Samnite religious sanctuaries, bulls would continue to be sacrificed to Mars.[8][12]These sanctuaries became communal sites. Resulting in the word Safinim coming to refer to all Samnites in Oscan.[8]Safinim may have also designated the part of Italy where most of the fighting in the Social Was was concentrated.[11]

History

Map of ancient Samnium from The Historical Atlas by William R. Shepherd, 1911.

Origins and Early History

According to Strabo and coins made during the Social war, the Samnites were exiled from the Sabines. During a war between the Sabines and the Umbrians the Sabines decided to dedicate the spoils of war to the god Mars. These spoils included people. When the captured babies reached adulthood they were sent away as colonists. They were then guided by a bull to a new homeland. This homeland was currently inhabited by the Opici. The Samnites proceeded to sacrificed to bull to Mars. According to Strabo a group of Lucanians joined the Samnites.[3][8][12][13][14]During the 5th Century the Samnites took over much of the region of Campania after the Etruscans left the region. Although, we cannot be sure which Samnite cities and settlements took part in the campaign.[15] Some candidates are the Caudini settlements of Caudium and Saticula. The most likely reason for this conquest was to gain access to the fertile soil of the region. This land could have also been used to alleviate overpopulation.[15] The conquered land also gave the Caudini and Saticulans access to the Volturno River.[15] The Samnites also expanded into former Greek territory one Greek hegemony in the region waned.[16]

Samnite Wars

Map of Rome after the Samnite Wars

The Samnites first came into contact with the Romans after the Romans defeated the Volscians. Although the earliest written record of the people is a treaty with the Romans from 354 BC, which set their border at the Liris River. Shortly thereafter, in 343 BCE, the Samnite Wars broke out. The First Samnite War was ignited when the city of Capua was offered to the Romans by the Capuans, while the Samnites were besieging the city. The Romans sent two armies to attack the Samnites. One army relieved Capua, one raided the Samnites. The first battle of the war was the Battle of Mount Gaurus. The Romans lost the battle, although they would win another battle at Sussela. During the war, according to the Samnites, the Romans would raid and plunder Samnite lands.[17] By the end of the war the Samnites stopped their attacks on Rome and Capua, and the Romans did not continue their offensives into Samnium.[17] The peace treaty ceded the Latin colony of Fregellae to the Samnites and Capua to the Romans.[18] It also established an alliance between the Romans and the Samnites. In-between the Samnite Wars the Romans adopted the Manipular System.[19] The Samnites would again attack Rome, during the Second Samnite War, winning the Battle of Caudine Forks in 321 BCE and the Battle of Lautulae in 315 BCE. The Samnites pushed as far as Ardea. In 312 BCE the Etruscans intervened on the side of the Samnites, resulting in fighting between the Romans and the Etruscans. After more campaigning in Apulia and Samnium the Second Samnite War came to an end in 304 BCE. The old treaty between the Romans and the Samnites was restored.. The third Samnite war broke out in 298 BCE, and it ended in 290 BCE. Resulting in the assimilation of the Samnites into Roman territory.[20]

Later History

Colline Gates

The Samnites were one of the Italian peoples that allied with King Pyrrhus of Epirus during the Pyrrhic War. After Pyrrhus left for Sicily, the Romans invaded Samnium and were crushed at the Battle of the Cranita hills, but after the defeat of Pyrrhus, the Samnites could not resist on their own and surrendered to Rome. Some of them joined and aided Hannibal during the Second Punic War, but most stayed loyal to Rome. The Samnites and several other Italic people rebelled against Rome and started the Social War, after Romans refused to grant them Roman citizenship. The war lasted almost four years, and resulted in a Roman victory. However, Samnites and other Italic tribes were granted Roman citizenship, to avoid another war. The Samnites supported the faction of Marius and Carbo in the civil war against Sulla. A Samnite by the name Pontius Telesinus lead the Samnites against Sulla. Pontius Telesinus worked with Lucanian leader named Marcus Lamponius, and possibly a third man named Tiberius Clepitius.[21] They gathered an army of 40,000 men and fought a battle against Sulla at the Colline Gates. This battle was close, however Sulla won. Pontius was killed shortly after the battle.[21] During the battle Pontius went to his men and told them that the wolves who were the oppressors of Italy would always be there unless the forest they lived in was cut down.[22] Pontius is also recorded having told his men:[21][23]

"We had concluded perpetual friendship with the Romans, which you yourselves violated by giving aid to the Sidicini, our enemies. When peace was concluded again, you made war upon the Neapolitans, our neighbors. Nor did it escape us that these things were part of a plan of yours to seize the dominion of all Italy. In the first battles, where you gained the advantage on account of the unskilfulness of our generals, you showed us no moderation. Not content with devastating our country and occupying towns and villages not your own, you planted colonies in them. Moreover, when we twice sent embassies to you and made many concessions, you treated us disdainfully, and demanded that we should yield you the supremacy and obey you, as though we were not a nation to make terms with but a conquered race. Thereupon you decreed this irreconcilable, implacable war against your former friends, descendants of the Sabines whom you made your fellow-citizens. On account of your insatiable cupidity we ought not to make a treaty with you. But I, having regard for the divine wrath (which you despised), and mindful of our former relationship and friendship, will permit each one of you to pass under the yoke safe and sound with the clothes you stand in, if you swear to give up all of our lands and strongholds and withdraw your colonies from the same, and never wage war against the Samnites again."

— Pontius Telesinus, Appian, Samnite History

Many scholars debate the veracity of this speech. Some claim that it is propaganda made during the first century for the Social War. According to Livy, Pontius spoke against the Romans for violating the terms of their surrender. Pontius stated:[24]

“Will you never lack a reason for not abiding, in defeat, by your agreements? You gave hostages to Porsenna, and smuggled them out through trickery.”

— Pontius Telesinus, Livy, Ab Urbe Condita

Sulla ended up winning the war and was declared the dictator of Rome. He ordered all those who went against him to be punished. Thousands of people in Rome and all over Italy were brutally hunted down and killed. Samnites, who were some of the most prominent supporters of the Marians, were punished so severely that it was recorded, "some of their cities have now dwindled into villages, some indeed being entirely deserted." The Samnites did not play any prominent role in history after this, and they eventually became Latinized and assimilated into the Roman world.[25][26]

Economy

A coin from the Social War

During the earliest parts of Samnite history they were a poor landlocked country with very few natural resources, resulting in a pastoral economy .[27] While pastoralism was important, its prominence has been overestimated by modern studies.[1] Agriculture was an important aspect of the Samnite economy. With subsistence agriculture, animal husbandry, mixed farming, sheep farming, and smallholdings were common and important in ancient Samnium.[16][28] Some sources suggest that trade and money were nonexistent during this part of their history. However, they may have also benefited from Mediterranean trade networks.[1] Due to the mountainous terrain livestock was very important to their economy. The most common type of animal was sheep and cattle. Goats and pigs were also common.[15] Grain was the most important crop for Samnite farmers.[29] Farmers also practiced Transhumance to some extent.[27] It is unclear if large scale transhumance was practiced. It might have only become popular after the Roman conquest. Despite the lack of trade, some goods, such as cereals, olives, legumes, and vines were produced.[27] Many conflicts between the Samnites and other civilizations occurred due to the general poverty of the Samnites.[18] Warfare and raiding was an essential part of the Samnite economy.[27]

Later a period of urbanization drastically changed the Samnite economy. Ceramic and textile manufacturing became more popular.[15] A number of pottery workshops have been found in Bovianum, Saepinum, Venafrum, Larinum, and possibly Caudium.[15] Samnite pottery was impasto, which black gloss.[29] It is likely that wool and probably leather were harvested in significant quantities. As evidenced by the many loom weights found in the region.[15] New ironworking techniques were developed and bronze would be produced.[29] Trade also developed, with new extensive trade networks stretching across Campania, Latium, Apulia, and Magna Graecia being established.[15]

Government

A depiction of the Samnite government

Samnite settlements, or vicus, would be grouped into cantons called a Pagus. Many Pagi would be grouped together into a touto. There was one touto for each of the four Samnite tribes. The Caraceni, Caudini, Hirpini, Pentri. The pagi would be lead by an elected official called a Meddix.[30] Each touto would be governed by an elected official called a Meddix Tuticus. The Meddix Tuticus was elected annually and had supreme executive and judicial power.[29][30] The Meddix and Meddix Tuticus was not the only political body in Samnium. Councils and assemblies similar to a Senate existed. Some Senates were located at the capitals of the Samnite tribes. For instance, the Pentrian Senate was located at Bovianum. It is unclear if these forms of government existed before the Roman conquest.[31] Despite these democratic institutions, Samnite society was still dominated by a small group of aristocratic families.[29]

Samnite society was a unified entity. The Samnite tribes functioned independently from one another. Despite this, they could organize into a union similar to the Latin League. It would have been very difficult to get the Samnite tribes to unify. If they did the alliance would have been a primarily militaristic organization. Leaders from each tribe would have to agree on a policy proposal before it could become a law. The laws enacted by this league would be enforced by a commander and chief.[15][18]

This system of government maintained itself after the Roman conquest of Samnium. The touto and pagus would function as miniature Republics, while the vicus would continue to function normally. The only interference from the Romans would be that the Municipum held authority over all of the previous institutions, and could override them.[1]

Settlements and Houses

Saepinum

The majority of Samnite settlements were small. Most people lived in hamlets and had to work for a living.[16] Larger settlements existed. Such as Saepinum and Caiatia.[32] Samnite cities did not have urban planning. They looked like a collection of buildings centered around a crossroad.[4] Their cities had no buildings similar to a forum or an Agora. They did have lavish temples, houses, dining complexes, and sanctuaries dedicated to political, legal, theatrical, and religious business.[16][31][33][1]Other civil and military buildings received less lavish treatment than similar buildings in other cultures.[28] Samnite cities and settlements had many roads called tratturi. They would connect to form a main road called a tratturo. The tratturo lead from summer pastures in the Apennines to the grazing areas in the lowlands for the winter. Although there were many expensive and lavish buildings such as temples, houses, and other structures. One structure found in Samnite ruins is a massive dining complex.[1]

Samnite cities had many ways of defending themselves from attacks. Most cities are located on hilltops and mountainous. During the Samnite Wars many cities began to develop walls and other defensive fortifications.[16] The walls of Saepinum were ten feet thick. The walls of Allifae were thirty feet high. One Pentrian city, called Monte Varino, has walls stretching three kilometers.[29] These walls were rough and crude, this possibly aided an attacker in taking them.[4] It is possible most Samnite walls were not built for the purpose of defending cities, and instead they were used to allow the defending army to retreat and regroup. As most walls are located at the crest of a hill with no other defenses. The gates of Samnite cities were heavily fortified on the left, but not the right. This was done to force soldiers to attack the gates on the right, the side they were not holding their shield on.[4] Hillforts built with polygonal walling were another common defensive fortification in Samnium. It is unclear if these hillforts were permanent defenses they may have only been inhabited temporarily. Hillforts would have been important to the political structure of Samnium. Some academics, like Maurizio Gaultieri, have gone as far as to suggest that the vicus-pagi-touto system, may have been a vicus, pagi, oppidum, touto system. With the oppidum representing the forts.[1]

Small, personal farms were common buildings. One farmhouse found near Campobasso consists of a square module, which was likely a stable house, and a series of rooms with hearths centered around a courthouse. The house has a small mortar line basin, a dolia, and other container vessels. Indicated the process and storage of produce.[29] Other Samnite houses had limestone columns, terracotta gutter spouts, tiled roofs, and were made of stone.[28][29].

Religion

Deities

Face of Mefitis

Religion was important to the Samnites. It held the Samnite tribes together, and, according the Samnites, resulted in all life life and action. The Samnites viewed the world as filled with the supernatural.

Spirits called Numina were prominent in Samnite mythology. It was essential to establish proper relations with these spirits. The Numina were vaguely defined. They may or may not have had human forms, and could have been genderless, nameless, and kinless. Eventually, the Numina evolved into the Samnite gods and goddesses.[34] They lived in particular localities and they excised certain powers. Their powers possibly amounted to nothing more than divine will. Numina lived in everything. They lived in houses, rivers, mountains, the day, the night.[8] The most famous spirit-haunted place in Samnium was the valley of Ampsanctus.[8][35][36]

Few Samnite gods are known, but some names have survived. The Samnites worshipped a god named Mefitis. Mefitis was the Samnites goddess of the foul smelling gasses of the earth.[37] The household was the center of Samnite of Samnite religion. Samnite religion preserved the family as if it were its chief object. Samnite religion also emphasized birth, marriage, and death. Which were, in their view, the most important things that could happen in a household. This is showcased by one of their gods. Recorded by the Romans as genetrix, obsterix, and nutrix, was the goddess of happiness and childbirth. Other gods worshipped by the Samnites were Flora and Loesius. Gods like Fortuna, Fides, an Spes, did not gain importance until after the Roman conquest.[4]

The Samnites believed in an afterlife. When burying a dead person, they would give them items which would ease their journey into the afterlife. One example is, they would be given games, food, and some sort of purification rite. It is debated if people would be honored after death.[4] Before the 5th Century BCE ornately decorated burial places occupied an important part of Samnite religion. The importance of graves reached its most prominent position during the Samnite Wars. Afterwards, a significant decline in Samnite burial places occurs. Suggesting a decline the importance of graves in Samnite religion.

Practices

Italian votive offering

The Samnites had religious sanctuaries dedicated to sacrifice. 72 percent of the sacrificed animals were pigs, 28 percent were sheep and goats. Male pigs were two times more likely to be sacrificed then female pigs. Other animals that could be sacrificed were birds, cows, fish, roe deer, oysters.[29] According to Livy the sacrifices were practiced in a 200 square feet area, which was fenced off and covered in linen cloth. Livy also claims the Samnites had a practice called ver sacrum. Where all the infants born in a particular year were dedicated to a god and would be exiled from the community upon reaching adulthood. Some scholars, such as Oakley and De Cazanove, believe Livy is likely lumping together many different practices and groups. It is likely that Livy was trying to purposely paint the Samnites in a negative light. Other scholars, such as Coareli and Tagliamonte, believe Livy is accurately describing Samnite practices.[8]

In the 5th Century BCE, Samnites offered weapons taken from defeated enemies to their gods. By the third century BCE, this practice had been replaced with other votive offerings. Votive bronze and terracotta figurines, which were dedicated to their gods. Pottery, coins, beverages, cakes, and animal statuettes were also offered.[38] The gifts offered to the gods needed to be important to the populous.[4]

The Samnites had magical chants which were used at harvests, festivals, and marriages. While chanting, the chanters would have faces painted with red. Other ceremonies would be performed at weddings which would promote fertility and bring good fortune. The Samnites also used birds to tell omens.[8]

Priests

Priests supervised and regulated festivals. They defined the limits to sanctuaries and kept records. Samnite priests likely formed the basis of Augustus' seviri augustales. Samnite priests also had linen books which they would use to manage sacrifices and bind people to oaths.[29][39] During the Samnite Wars they tried binding the Samnite army to these oaths.[4][40][41] The political leaders of Samnite society. The Meddix and Meddix Tuticus were likely also involved in religious life.[4]

Sanctuaries

Samnite sanctuary complex at Pietrabbondante

Samnite sanctuaries in the third century BCE were Ionic. They consisted of a temple and several surrounding buildings. After this temple was destroyed, a new sanctuary was built. The new sanctuary was built on a podium. It was likely prostyle and portico, with a single cellarette. This temple was important to Samnite political life in the second century BCE. Parts of the building were dedicated by magistrates. These two sanctuaries were not the only ones built. Another theatre complex, built shortly before the Social War, was a portico temple with a podium and the three cellarettes. This sanctuary had long porticos and stairs leading to to the podium. In front of the podium, two altars stand. They are aligned with the central and eastern cellarettes. It was flanked by two lateral porticoes. This temple has a theatre. the theatre has polygonal walls which are decorated with telamones.[1]

The majority of sanctuaries were built in the third century BCE. There are numerous theories to explain why. One is that the Samnites used them to benefit from the Mediterranean trade networks. They could have also used to them to make profits from the practice of transhumance. However, it is unclear how the Samnites would have made money off these temples. It is also uncertain how any money made from these would be spent. Another theory is that the sanctuaries were the areas where government business was conducted. Many gods worshipped in the Sanctuaries such as Alba Fucens or Hercules had connections to transhumance. Suggesting that the temples not just attracted a crowd of farmers, but they also benefited from agriculture in some way. Most examples we have of connections between Hercules and trade, especially sheep and cattle trade date to times where Rome controlled Samnium. It is possible these sanctuaries existed before the Romans conquered the Samnites, however there is little evidence for this. Hercules was commonly worshipped long before connections between him and pastoralism were established. His role as patron of herdsman and merchants was still important, however he was venerated long before he was the patron of these trades. There is some, albeit sparse, evidence that the locations of Samnite sanctuaries was determined by transhumance routes.[1]

Samnite sanctuaries may have functioned as border marker. They could have also have served as a meeting place between bordering communities. For example, the Carricini would be separated from the Marrucini by sanctuaries littered with bronze statutes. Aside from marking the borders between communities, they could have also marked the borders between urban and rural areas. Contact between different communities would have been important to the development of sanctuaries. The areas between communities and contact between though would have lead to the sanctuaries being built. Sanctuaries would be the area where the sovereignty of the city manifested. This analysis of the archaeological remnants may not be accurate, as our archaeological evidence may not be complete, our interpretation of the evidence may also be wrong. Despite the fact that it is somewhat imprudent to try and catalogue all non-urban sanctuaries as border marker, it is likely some sanctuaries were border markers. Although a rigid territory organizations seems unlikely.[1]

Inside Samnite sanctuaries many different gods would have been worshipped. It has been suggested that different sanctuaries would venerate different gods, and different aspects of gods. If this were true it would imply the Samnite sanctuaries excluded outsiders and reinforced group identity. The Samnites are known to have been xenophobic. One Samnite ritual has them formally banishing outsiders from their country. In certain Oscan texts, rules are laid out for a sanctuary worshipping Hercules. The sanctuary is specifically supposed to serve the inhabitants of Nola and Abella. The purpose of the sanctuary was to resolve property disputes between differing groups of Samnites. The sanctuary, and the land around it, seems to belong to no one. No community owned it. This could imply that one of the functions of the Samnite sanctuary was not to mark borders, but instead to mark that there were not borders.[1]

List of tribes

Notable Samnites

Gentes of Samnite origin

Leaders of the Samnites

Social War leader

Romans of Samnite origin

See also

References

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  2. ^ Robson, D. O. “The Samnites in the Po Valley.” The Classical Journal, vol. 29, no. 8, The Classical Association of the Middle West and South, 1934, pp. 599–608, http://www.jstor.org/stable/3290441.
  3. ^ a b "Samnite (people)". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. Retrieved 29 November 2012.
  4. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Edward Togo Salmon (1967). Samnium and the Samnites. Cambridge University Press. p. 30. ISBN 978-0-521-06185-8.
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  19. ^ Esposito, Gabriele (2021-01-30). Armies of Ancient Italy 753-218 BC: From the Foundation of Rome to the Start of the Second Punic War. Pen and Sword Military. ISBN 978-1-5267-5188-1.
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  21. ^ a b c Dart, Dr Christopher J. (2014-12-28). The Social War, 91 to 88 BCE: A History of the Italian Insurgency against the Roman Republic. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. ISBN 978-1-4724-1678-0.
  22. ^ Crawford, Michael Hewson (1993). The Roman Republic. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-77927-3.
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Further reading

  • Salmon, Edward Togo. Samnium and the Samnites. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1967.
  • Forsythe, Gary. A Critical History of Early Rome: From Prehistory to the First Punic War. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2005.
  • Jones, Howard. Samnium: Settlement and Cultural Change: the Proceedings of the Third E. Togo Salmon Conference On Roman Studies. Providence, RI: Center for Old World Archaeology and Art, 2004.
  • Paget, R. F. Central Italy: An Archaeological Guide; the Prehistoric, Villanovan, Etruscan, Samnite, Italic, and Roman Remains, and the Ancient Road Systems. 1st U.S. ed. Park Ridge, NJ: Noyes Press, 1973.
  • Salvucci, Claudio R. A Vocabulary of Oscan: Including the Oscan and Samnite Glosses. Southampton, Pa.: Evolution Pub., 1999.
  • Stek, Tesse. Cult Places and Cultural Change In Republican Italy: A Contextual Approach to Religious Aspects of Rural Society After the Roman Conquest. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 2010.

External links

Library resources about
Samnites
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