View source for Arameans

{{Short description|Ancient Semitic people in the Near East}}
{{About|the ancient Arameans|other uses| Aramean (disambiguation)}}
{{Distinguish|Armenians|Aromanians}}
{{pp|small=yes}}
The '''Arameans''', or '''Aramaeans''' ({{langx|oar|𐤀𐤓𐤌𐤉𐤀}}, {{transliteration|syc|''Aramayya''}}; {{langx|he|אֲרַמִּים}}; {{langx|grc|Ἀραμαῖοι}}; {{langx|syc|ܐܪ̈ܡܝܐ}}, {{transliteration|syc|''Aramaye''}},<ref>{{cite book |title=The Oxford Dictionary of Late Antiquity |isbn=9780192562463 |page=234 |language=English}}</ref> {{small|[[Syriac language#Phonology|Syriac pronunciation]]:}} {{IPA-syc|ʔɑːrɑːˈmɑːje|}}), were a [[Tribe|tribal]]<ref>{{cite book |title=Sargon II, King of Assyria |isbn=9780884142232 |page=179 |language=English |quote=The origin of the Aramean tribal groups in this area still remains unclear, in spite of the several hypotheses proposed.? Aramean tribal groups are attested at least from the eleventh century as new occupants of strategic areas in the Jezirah, northern Mesopotamia, and the Syrian steppe.}}</ref> [[Semitic people]]<ref>{{cite book |title=The Ancient Assyrians |isbn=9781472848079 |page=13 |language=English}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Ancient Egypt and the Near East |isbn=9780761499572 |page=140 |language=English}}</ref> in the ancient [[Ancient Near East|Near East]], first documented in historical sources from the late 12th century BC. Their homeland, often referred to as the land of [[Aram (region)|Aram]], originally covered central regions of modern [[Syria]].<ref>{{cite book |title=Studies in the Aramaic Legal Papyri from Elephantine |isbn=9789004294233 |language=English |quote=The spread of the Aramaic language from its Syrian homeland resulted in large part from Aramean migration and expansion, and was abetted by the Neo-Assyrian policy of deportation operative during the gth to the 7th cen turies. These factors led to the so-called Aramaization of Assyria and Babylonia, a process that gained momentum in the latter days of the Assyrian Empire.}}</ref>

The Arameans were not a single nation or group; rather, Aram was a region with local centers of power spread throughout the [[Levant]]. That makes it almost impossible to establish a coherent ethnic category of "Aramean" based on extra-linguistic identity markers such as material culture, lifestyle or religion.{{sfn|Doak|2020|p=51|ps=:However, we must be clear at the outset: the Arameans were never, in fact, a single nation or group; rather, Aram was a region with local centers of power spread throughout contemporary Syria, Jordan, and Lebanon, at major cities such as Damascus and Hamath.}}{{sfn|Gzella|2017|p=23|ps=:It is nonetheless difficult if not impossible to establish a coherent ethnic category "Aramean" on the basis of extra-linguistic identity markers such as material culture, lifestyle (including cuisine), or religion and other cultural core traditions.}} The people of Aram were called “Arameans” in [[Assyria|Assyrian]] texts<ref>{{cite book |author1=Jan Dušek |author2=Jana Mynářová |title=Aramaean Borders |publisher=Brill |isbn=9789004398535 |page=82 |language=English |quote=Tiglath-pileser III stated: 13 [From] those [Ara]means whom I deported, [I distribut]ed (and) settled [...thousand to the province of] the turtanu, 10,000 (to) the province of the palace herald, [...] thousand (to) the province of the chief cupbearer, ...thousand (to) the province of the land] Barha(l)zi, (and) 5,000 (to) the province of the land Mazamua.}}</ref> and in the [[Hebrew Bible]],<ref>{{cite book |author1=Thomas V Brisco |title=Holman Bible Atlas |isbn=9781433670312 |language=English |quote=The cultural identity of Syria varied historically; but from at least the beginning of the Iron Age (ca. 1200 B.C.), the Arameans increasingly dominated the region. Aramean kingdoms like Aram-Damascus, Aram-zobah, and Hamath appear repeatedly in the biblical record.}}</ref> but the terms “Aramean” and “Aram” were never used by later [[List of Aramean kings|Aramean dynasts]] to refer to themselves or their country, with the exception of the king of Aram-Damascus since his kingdom was also called Aram.{{sfn|Sader|2014|p=15|ps= "It is interesting to note in this context that later Aramaean dynasts never refer to themselves as Aramaeans or to their country as Aram, with the exception of the king of Aram-Damascus since his kingdom was also called Aram."}} "Arameans" is merely an appellation of the geographical term [[Aram (region)|Aram]] given to 1st-millennium BC inhabitants of Syria.{{sfn|Berlejung|2014|p=339}}{{sfn|Sader|2014|p=16|ps= "So Aram is a geographical term that refers at times to part and at others to all of the Syrian territory in the Iron Age, hence the appellation "Aramaeans" given to the 1st - millennium B.C. inhabitants of Syria"}} 

At the beginning of the 1st millennium BCE, several Aramean-ruled [[City-state|city-states]] were established throughout the ancient [[Ancient Near East|Near East]]. The most notable was [[Aram-Damascus]] which reached its height in the second half of the 9th century BCE during the reign of King [[Hazael]]. During the 8th century BC, local Aramaean city-states were gradually conquered by the [[Neo-Assyrian Empire]]. The policy of population displacement and relocation that was applied throughout Assyrian domains also affected Arameans, many of whom were resettled by Assyrian authorities. That caused a wider dispersion of Aramean communities throughout various regions of the Near East, and the range of [[Aramaic]] also widened. It gained significance and eventually became the [[lingua franca|common language]] of public life and administration, particularly during the periods of the [[Neo-Babylonian Empire]] (612–539 BCE) and the [[Achaemenid Empire]] (539–330 BCE).

Before [[Christianity]], Aramaic-speaking communities had undergone considerable [[Hellenization]] and [[Romanization]] in the [[Near East]].{{sfn|Healey|2019|p=443}} Thus, their integration into the Greek-speaking world had begun a long time before Christianity became established.{{sfn|Healey|2019|p=444}} Some scholars suggest that Arameans who accepted Christianity were referred to as Syrians by the [[Greeks]].{{sfn|Witakowski|1987|p=76|ps=:Ever since the time of christianization those Arameans who embraced the new religion have been referred to as the Syrians, a name of Greek origin which they eventually accepted themselves.}} The [[early Muslim conquests]] in the 7th century were followed by the [[Islamization]] and the gradual [[Arabization]] of Aramaic-speaking communities throughout the Near East. That ultimately resulted in their fragmentation and [[acculturation]].{{sfn|Griffith|1997|p=11–31}} Today, their cultural and linguistic heritage continues to be recognized by some [[Terms for Syriac Christians|Syriac-Christian]] or [[Neo-Aramaic languages|Neo-Aramaic speaking]] groups, such as the [[Maronites]] and the Aramean inhabitants of [[Maaloula]] and [[Jubb’adin]] near Damascus in Syria.<ref>{{cite book |title=Syrian Identity in the Greco-Roman World |isbn=9781107244566 |page=17 |language=English |quote=As Greek politai became a sub-category for a wider group of Syrians, the Greek peer polity network of Syria and, more broadly, the Roman imperial Syrian ethnos maintained cognitive and performative commonality, even if it did not always enjoy political solidarity or engage in unified mass action. Within it, both ethnic Greeks and ethnic Syrians, whether speaking Greek or Aramaic, deemed ancient (As)Syrians/Arameans among their ethnos civic founders (if not ethnic ancestors), but their historical narratives were often informed by Greek influences and categories. In this sense, Syrians of the Roman imperial era, and even Assyrians or Arameans beyond the frontier, posited links to various ancient Greek or Syrian "founders," with or without positing ethnic descent.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=The Maronites in history |page=177 |language=English |quote=Lammens states that [[al-Baladhuri]] labeled these Maronites al-Anbat to indicate their Aramaic (Syriac) origin.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Journal of the Transactions of the Victoria Institute, Or Philosophical Society of Great Britain |publisher=Victoria Institute. |page=51 |language=English |quote=The only people that remain who might be considered lineal descendants of the Aramean race are the [[Druzes|Droozes]] and [[Maronites]].}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author1=Asher Kaufman |title=Reviving Phoenicia |language=English |quote=The Syrians today, Zaydan continued, are divided by their origin into two groups: Muslims and Christians. Most of the Muslims are Arabs. As for the Christians, the majority are descendants of the Arameans, the Arabs and the Greeks. The Arameans were the original inhabitants of the land, then came the Greeks from the West, followed by the Arabs, the Ghasanis, who came from the Hauran in the hinterland. In short, Christian Syrians are not genealogically Arabs, even if there is some Arab blood flowing in their veins. Yet they are considered Arabs because they speak Arabic, they procreate in an Arab land and they live according to Arab morals. Thus, Syria became an Arab country after the Islamic occupation.}}</ref>

== Etymology ==
The [[toponym]] ''A-ra-mu'' appears in an inscription at the [[East Semitic languages|East Semitic]]-speaking kingdom of [[Ebla]] listing geographical names, and the term ''Armi'', the [[Eblaite language|Eblaite]] term for nearby [[Idlib]], occurs frequently in the [[Ebla tablets]] (c. 2300 BCE). One of the annals of [[Naram-Sin of Akkad]] (c. 2250 BCE) mentions that he captured "Dubul, the [[ensí]] of ''A-ra-me''" (''Arame'' is seemingly a [[genitive]] form), in the course of a campaign against [[Simurrum]] in the northern mountains.{{sfn|Lipiński|2000|p=26-40}} Other early references to a place or people of "Aram" have appeared at the archives of [[Mari, Syria|Mari]] (c. 1900 BCE) and at [[Ugarit]] (c. 1300 BCE). There is no consensus on the origin and meaning of the word "Aram", one of the most accepted suggestions being that it is derived from a Semitic root ''rwm'', "to be high". Newer suggestions interprets it as a [[broken plural]] meaning "white antelopes" or "white bulls".{{sfn|Sader|2010|p=277}} However, there are no historical, archaeological or linguistic evidences that those early uses of the terms ''Aramu'', ''Armi'' or ''Arame'' were actually referring to the Arameans; thus, it is believed to originally be a toponym without any ethnic connotations.{{sfn|Berlejung|2014|p=339}} The earliest undisputed historical attestation of Arameans as a people appears much later, in the inscriptions of [[Tiglath Pileser I]] (c. 1100 BCE).{{sfn|Lipiński|2000|p=25–27}}{{sfn|Gzella|2015|p=56}}{{sfn|Younger|2016|p=35-108}}

==History==
{{multiple image
|image1=Aramean funeral stele Louvre AO3026.jpg
|caption1=Sin zir Ibni inscription
|width1=150
|image2=F1317 Louvre Stele Si Gabbor AO3027 rwk.jpg
|caption2=Si Gabbor stele
|width2=215
|footer=The [[Neirab steles]], a pair of 7th century BCE [[Canaanite and Aramaic inscriptions|Aramaic inscriptions]] found in 1891 in [[Al-Nayrab]] near [[Aleppo]], [[Syria]].}}

===Origins===
Nomadic pastoralists have long played a prominent role in the history and economy of the [[Middle East]], but their numbers seem to vary according to climatic conditions and the force of neighbouring states inducing permanent settlement. The [[Late Bronze Age]] seems to coincide with increasing aridity, which weakened neighbouring states and induced [[transhumance]] pastoralists to spend longer and longer periods with their flocks. Urban settlements (hitherto largely inhabited by [[Amorite]], [[Canaan|Canaaite]], [[Hittites|Hittite]], and [[Ugarit]]e peoples) in the [[Levant]] diminished in size until fully-nomadic pastoralist lifestyles came to dominate much of the region. The highly mobile competitive tribesmen, with their sudden raids, continually threatened long-distance trade and interfered with the collection of taxes and tribute.

The people who had long been the prominent population in what is now Syria (called the ''Land of the Amurru'' during their tenure) were the Amorites, a [[Northwest Semitic languages|Northwest Semitic]]-speaking people who had appeared during the 25th century BCE, destroyed the hitherto dominant state of Ebla, founded the powerful state of [[Mari, Syria|Mari]] in the Levant and during the 19th century BCE also [[Babylonia]], in southern [[Mesopotamia]]. However, they seem to have been displaced or wholly absorbed by the appearance of a people called the [[Ahlamu]] by the 13th century BCE and disappear from history. Ahlamû appears to be a generic term for [[ancient Semitic-speaking peoples|Semitic wanderers and nomads of varying origins]] who appeared during the 13th century BCE across the [[ancient Near East]], the [[Arabian Peninsula]], [[Asia Minor]], and [[Egypt]].

The Arameans would appear to be one part of the larger generic Ahlamû group rather than synonymous with the Ahlamu.<ref>{{cite book |author=Marc Van De Mieroop |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=E1iqUz-XD0UC&q=ahlamu&pg=PA63 |title=The Eastern Mediterranean in the Age of Ramesses II |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |year=2009 |isbn=9781444332209 |page=63}}</ref> The presence of the Ahlamû is attested during the [[Middle Assyrian Empire]] (1365–1020 BCE), which already ruled many of the lands in which the Ahlamû arose in the Babylonian city of [[Nippur]] and even at [[Dilmun]]. [[Shalmaneser I]] (1274–1245 BCE) is recorded as having defeated [[Shattuara]], King of the [[Mitanni]] and his [[Hittites|Hittite]] and Ahlamû mercenaries. In the next century, the Ahlamû cut the road from [[Babylon]] to [[Hattusas]]. Also, [[Tukulti-Ninurta I]] (1244–1208 BCE) conquered [[Mari, Syria|Mari]], [[Hanigalbat]] and [[Rapiqum]] on the [[Euphrates]] and "the mountain of the Ahlamû", apparently the region of [[Jebel Bishri]] in northern Syria.

===Aramean states===
{{main|Syro-Hittite states}}
[[File:Estats neohitites i arameus a Síria al segle VIII aC.png|thumb|right|250px|Various [[Luwians|Luwian]] and Aramean (orange shades) states in the 8th century BCE]]
The emergence of the Arameans occurred during the [[Late Bronze Age collapse|Bronze Age collapse]] (1200–900 BCE), which saw great upheavals and mass movements of peoples across the [[Middle East]], [[Asia Minor]], the [[Caucasus]], the [[East Mediterranean]], [[North Africa]], [[Ancient Iran]], [[Ancient Greece]] and the [[Balkans]] and led to the genesis of new peoples and polities across those regions. The [[Middle Assyrian Empire]] (1365–1050 BCE), which had dominated the [[Near East]] and [[Asia Minor]] since the first half of the 14th century BCE, began to shrink rapidly after the death of [[Ashur-bel-kala]], its last great ruler in 1056 BCE. The Assyrian withdrawal allowed the Arameans and others to gain independence and take firm control of [[Eber-Nari]] in the late 11th century BCE.

Some of the major Aramean-speaking city states included [[Aram-Damascus]],{{sfn|Lipiński|2000|p=347}}{{sfn|Younger|2016|p=549-654}} [[Hamath]],{{sfn|Lipiński|2000|p=249}}{{sfn|Younger|2016|p=425-500}} [[Bet-Adini]],{{sfn|Lipiński|2000|p=163}}{{sfn|Younger|2016|p=307-372}} [[Bet-Bagyan]],{{sfn|Lipiński|2000|p=119}} [[Bit-Hadipe]], [[Aram Rehob|Aram-Bet Rehob]],{{sfn|Lipiński|2000|p=319}} [[Aram-Zobah]], [[Bet-Zamani]],{{sfn|Lipiński|2000|p=135}} [[Bet-Halupe]],{{sfn|Lipiński|2000|p=78}} and [[Maacah|Aram-Ma'akah]], as well as the Aramean tribal polities of the [[Gambulu]], [[Litau]] and [[Puqudu]].{{sfn|Younger|2016|p=}} [[Peter Akkermans|Akkermans]] and Schwartz note that in assessing [[Luwians|Luwian]] and Aramean states in ancient Syria, the existing information on the ethnic composition of the regional states in ancient Syria primarily concerns the rulers and so the ethnolingustic situation of the majority of the population of the states is unclear. Furthermore, they mean that the material culture shows no distinctions between states dominated by the Luwians or the Arameans.{{sfn|Akkerman & Schwartz|2003|p=367}}

Aramean tribal groups were identified by family names that often began with the [[Semitic languages|Semitic]] prefix ''Bit'', meaning "house of", such as "Bit Adini". This naming convention was influenced by the writing system used by the coastal [[Phoenicia|Phoenicians]]. Each tribe's name signified the house or ancestral lineage to which it belonged.<ref>{{cite book |title=Ancient Israel's Neighbors |isbn=9780190690618 |pages=54–55 |language=English |quote=Groups of family members lived near one another, and the social structure was probably focused on the identity of a primarymale figure in the family ("patriarchal") and possibly even traced its roots to some local tribal ancestor, after which the group was named (e.g., Bit Adini, Bit-Agusi, Bit-Gabbari, Bit-Hazaili; the Semitic word "Bit" means "House of," followed by the name of a founding figure). Most scholars who study the Arameans speak of their origins in terms of "tribes" and tribal leaders who took advantage of political instability in the region during certain time periods to expand their territory.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=A History of Syria in One Hundred Sites |isbn=9781784913823 |page=5 |language=English |quote=Each Aramean tribal group was called by the family name, 'Bit' (house), following a coastal Phoenician writing system. The most important Aramaic kingdoms were established at Halaf (Kingdom of Guzana - the Kingdom of Bit-Bahiani), Ahmar (the Kingdom of Bit-Adini), Damascus (the Kingdom of Aram Damascus) and North of Aleppo (the Kingdom of Bit-Agushi).}}</ref> The term "Aram" sometimes referred only to a part and other times to the whole of the [[Syria (region)|Syrian region]] during the [[Iron Age]]. The expressions “All Aram” and “Upper and Lower Aram” in [[Sefire treaty inscriptions]] have been variously interpreted but can suggest a degree of political and cultural unity among some of the polities in the area.{{sfn|Sader|2014|p=15-16|ps=In the 8th century B.C. Aramaic inscriptions of Sefire (KAI 222–224) expressions “All Aram” and “Upper and Lower Aram” were variously interpreted but it can be safely argued that “All Aram” refers to a geographical area that included the territories of the Aramaean and non-Aramaean kingdoms united in the coalition against Matiʾel of Arpad, and that roughly covers the boundaries of modern Syria, while “Upper and Lower Aram” may refer to North and South Syria, respectively.}}<ref>{{cite book |author1=[[Steven Grosby]] |title=Biblical Ideas of Nationality |isbn=9781575060651 |pages=150–165 |language=English |quote=The qualifier "all" in "all Aram" is clearly of some sociological significance; it implies a certain kind of collective unity. One is immediately re-minded of the Deuteronomistic use of "all" in "all Israel (kol yisra'el) from Dan to Beersheba."}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author1=[[Brian Peckham|J. Brian Peckham]] |title=Phoenicia |isbn=9781646021222 |language=English |quote=By mid-century, the Syrian chiefdoms, through a system of alliances, affirmed their Aramean identity as "All Aram", consisting of the states in "Upper and Lower Aram", and together defied the Assyrian Empire.70}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Nation and Empire as Two Trends of Political Organization in the Iron Age Levant |publisher=Brill |isbn=9789004685581 |page=117 |language=English |quote=What is certain is that no united, pan-Aramean national state ever existed, yet clearly "Aram" served as a common identity marker and (self-)designation, although possibly with different meanings (e.g. as a region, as a collective noun for the people; or another appellation of the Damascus-centered polity). The brief analysis of the lists of treaty partners as well as the geographical description in the Sefire Treaties, furthermore, appears to suggest that "all Aram" may indicate the highest level of identity among different Aramean polities, above the tribe, the city-state and the individual ruling families, even if not all Aramean speakers, all Aramean tribes or states were included in this "all Aram". 119 The phrase more likely refers to a group of polities that shared common Aramean cultural and social features, perhaps all with Aramean tribal structures internally in addition to the use of varieties of the Aramean language, who chose to pick Aram as a common denominator in this context. 120 How inclusive or exclusive this phrase is in reality cannot be judged. Finally, while the nature of the Aramean identity is largely cultural and perhaps ethnic, the presence of political elements is also likely. Although a united Aramean polity, as the one suggested by B. Mazar (1962), might not be fully tenable, the fact that "all Aram", with Arpad as its representative, can serve as a party in international treaties indicates that the Arameans as an cultural community may have engaged in joint political acts, at least conceptually.}}</ref> 

Biblical sources tell that [[Saul]], [[David]] and [[Solomon]] (late 11th to 10th centuries BC) fought against the small Aramean states ranged across the northern frontier of Israel: [[Zobah|Aram-Sôvah]] in the [[Beqaa Valley|Beqaa]], [[Aram Rehob|Aram-Bêt-Rehob]] ([[Rehov]]) and [[Maacah|Aram-Ma'akah]] around [[Mount Hermon]], [[Geshur]] in the [[Hauran]], and Aram-Damascus. An Aramean king's account dating at least two centuries later, the [[Tel Dan stele]], was discovered in northern Israel and is famous for being perhaps the earliest non-Israelite extra-biblical historical reference to the Israelite royal dynasty, the [[Davidic line|House of David]]. In the early 11th century BCE, much of Israel came under foreign rule for eight years according to the [[Book of Judges]] until [[Othniel]] defeated the forces led by [[Cushan-Rishathaim]], who was titled in the Bible as ruler of [[Aram-Naharaim]].{{sfn|Billington|2005|p=117–132}}

Further north, the Arameans gained possession of post-Hittite [[Hamath]] on the [[Orontes river|Orontes]] River and became strong enough to dissociate with the [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]]-speaking [[post-Hittite states]]. The Arameans, together with the [[Edomites]] and the [[Ammon]]ites, attacked Israel in the early 11th century BCE but were defeated. Meanwhile, Arameans moved to the east of the [[Euphrates]] and into Babylonia, where an Aramean usurper was crowned king of Babylon under the name Adad-apal-iddin.<ref name="brit">[https://www.britannica.com/topic/Aramaean "Aramaean (people)"]. ''Encyclopaedia Britannica.''</ref>

During the 11th and the 10th centuries BCE, the Arameans conquered Sam'al and renamed it [[Bit Agusi|Bît-Agushi]],.{{sfn|Younger|2016|p=501-548}} They also conquered [[Til Barsip]], which became the chief town of [[Bit Adini|Bît-Adini]], also known as Beth Eden. North of Sam'al was the Aramean state of Bit Gabbari, which was sandwiched between the post-Hittite states of [[Carchemish]], [[Gurgum]], [[Khattina]], [[Unqi]] and the [[Georgian people|Georgian]]{{citation needed|date=September 2021}} state of [[Tabal (state)|Tabal]]. One of their earliest semi-independent kingdoms in northern [[Mesopotamia]] was Bît-Bahiâni ([[Tell Halaf]]).

===Under Neo-Assyrian rule===
{{Seealso|Assyrian conquest of Aram}}[[File:King Hazael dark.jpeg|thumb|right|250px|Aramean king [[Hazael]] of [[Aram-Damascus]]]]
[[File:092.The Israelites Slaughter the Syrians.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Illustration by [[Gustave Doré]] from the 1866 ''La Sainte Bible'' depicting an Israelite victory over the army of [[Ben-Hadad I|Ben-Hadad]], described in 1 Kings 20:26–34]]
The first certain reference to the Arameans appears in an [[Middle Assyrian Empire|Assyrian]] inscription of Tiglath-Pileser I, which refers to subjugating the "Ahlamû-Arameans" (''Ahlame Armaia''). Shortly afterward, the Ahlamû disappear from Assyrian annals and are replaced by the Arameans (''Aramu, Arimi''). That indicates that the Arameans had risen to dominance amongst the nomads. Among scholars, the relationship between the Akhlame and the Arameans is a matter of conjecture.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9005278/Akhlame|title=Akhlame|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref> By the late 12th century BCE, the Arameans had been firmly established in Syria; however, they were conquered by the [[Middle Assyrian Empire]].

Assyrian annals from the end of the Middle Assyrian Empire c. 1050 BCE and the rise of the Neo-Assyrian Empire in 911 BCE contain numerous descriptions of battles between Arameans and the Assyrian army.{{sfn|Younger|2016|p=}} The Assyrians launched repeated raids into Aramean lands, Babylonia, Ancient Iran, Elam, Asia Minor, and even as far as the [[Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean]] to keep its trade routes open. The Aramean city-states, like much of the Near East and Asia Minor, were subjugated by the Neo Assyrian Empire from the reign of [[Adad-nirari II]] in 911 BCE, who cleared Arameans and other tribal peoples from the borders of Assyria and began to expand in all directions. The process was continued by [[Ashurnasirpal II]] and his son [[Shalmaneser III]], who destroyed many of the small Aramean tribes and conquered Aramean lands for the Assyrians. 

In 732 BCE, Aram-Damascus fell and was conquered by Assyrian King [[Tiglath-Pileser III]]. The Assyrians named their Aramean colonies Eber Nari but still used the term "Aramean" to describe many of its peoples. The Assyrians conducted forced deportations of hundreds of thousands of Arameans to both Assyria and Babylonia, where a migrant population already existed.{{sfn|Wunsch|2013|p=247–260}} Conversely, the Aramaic language was adopted as the ''lingua franca'' of the Neo-Assyrian Empire in the 8th century BCE, and the native Assyrians and Babylonians began to make a gradual language shift towards Aramaic as the most common language of public life and administration.

The Neo Assyrian Empire descended into a series of brutal internal wars from 626 BCE that weakened it greatly. That allowed a coalition of many its former subject peoples ([[Babylonians]], [[Ancient Chaldeans|Chaldeans]], [[Medes]], [[Persian people|Persians]], [[Parthian Empire|Parthians]], [[Scythians]], [[Sagartians]] and [[Cimmerians]]) to attack Assyria in 616 BCE, sack [[Nineveh]] in 612 BCE and finally defeat it between 605 and 599 BCE.{{sfn|Saggs|1984|p=290|ps=: "The destruction of the Assyrian empire did not wipe out its population. They were predominantly peasant farmers, and since Assyria contains some of the best wheat land in the Near East, descendants of the Assyrian peasants would, as opportunity permitted, build new villages over the old cities and carry on with agricultural life, remembering traditions of the former cities. After seven or eight centuries and various vicissitudes, these people became Christians."}} During the war against Assyria, hordes of horse-borne Scythian and Cimmerian marauders ravaged through the Levant and all the way into Egypt.

As a result of migratory processes, various Aramean groups were settled throughout the ancient Near East, and their presence is recorded in the regions of [[Ancient Assyria|Assyria]],{{sfn|Nissinen|2014|p=273-296}} [[Ancient Babylonia|Babylonia]],{{sfn|Streck|2014|p=297-318}} [[Classical Anatolia|Anatolia]],{{sfn|Lemaire|2014|p=319-328}} [[Ancient Phoenicia|Phoenicia]],{{sfn|Niehr|2014b|p=329-338}} [[Ancient Palestine|Palestine]],{{sfn|Berlejung|2014|p=339-365}} [[Ancient Egypt|Egypt]]{{sfn|Botta|2014|p=366-377}} and [[Ancient Arabia|Northern Arabia]].{{sfn|Niehr|2014c|p=378-390}} Population transfers, conducted during the Neo-Assyrian Empire and followed by the gradual linguistic ''Aramization'' of non-Aramean populations, created a specific situation in the regions of [[Assyria]] proper among [[ancient Assyrians]], who originally spoke the [[ancient Assyrian language]], a dialect of Akkadian, but later accepted Aramaic.{{sfn|Millard|1983|p=106-107}}

===Neo-Babylonian Empire===
Eber-Nari was then ruled by the succeeding Neo-Babylonian Empire, which was initially headed by a short-lived Chaldean dynasty. The Aramean regions became a battleground between the Babylonians and the [[Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt|26th Dynasty]] of [[Egypt]], which had been installed by the Assyrians as vassals after they had defeated and ejected the previous [[Nubia]]n-ruled [[Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt|25th Dynasty]]. The Egyptians, having entered the region in a belated attempt to aid their former Assyrian masters, fought the Babylonians, initially with the help of remnants of the Assyrian army, in the region for decades before they were finally vanquished.

The Babylonians remained masters of the Aramean lands only until 539 BCE, when the Persian [[Achaemenid Empire]] overthrew [[Nabonidus]], the Assyrian-born last king of Babylon, who had himself overthrown the Chaldean dynasty in 556 BCE.

===Under Achaemenid and Hellenistic rule===
{{further|Imperial Aramaic|Eber Nari}}
The Arameans were later conquered by the [[Achaemenid Empire]] (539–332 BCE). However, little changed from the Neo-Assyrian and Neo-Babylonian times, as the Persians, seeing themselves as successors of previous empires, maintained [[Imperial Aramaic language|Imperial Aramaic]] as the main language of public life and administration.{{sfn|Lipiński|2000|p=}}{{sfn|Gzella|2015|p=}} Provincial administrative structures also remained the same, and the name Eber Nari still applied to the region.

The conquests of [[Alexander the Great]] marked the beginning of a new era in the history of the entire Near East, including the regions inhabited by Arameans. By the late 4th century BCE, two newly created Hellenistic states emerged as main pretenders for regional supremacy: the [[Seleucid Empire]] (305–64 BCE) and the [[Ptolemaic Empire]] (305–30 BCE). Since earlier times, ancient Greeks commonly used "Syrian" labels as designations for Arameans and heir lands, but it was during the Hellenistic (Seleucid-Ptolemaic) period that the term "Syria" was finally defined to designate the regions west of the [[Euphrates]], as opposed to the term "[[Assyria]]", which designated the regions further east.{{sfn|Frye|1992|p=281–285}}{{sfn|Heinrichs|1993|p=106-107}}

In the 3rd century BCE, various narratives related to the history of earlier Aramean states became accessible to wider audiences after the translation of the [[Hebrew Bible]] into the [[Greek language]]. Known as [[Septuagint]], the translation was created in [[Alexandria]], the capital of [[Ptolemaic Egypt]] that was the most important city of the [[Hellenistic world]] and was one of the main centres of [[Hellenization]]. Influenced by Greek terminology,{{sfn|Joosten|2010|p=53–72}} translators decided to adopt ancient Greek custom of using "Syrian" [[labels]] as designations for Arameans and their lands and thus abandon the [[endonymic]] (native) terms that were used in the Hebrew Bible. In Septuagint, the region of Aram was commonly labelled as "Syria", and the Arameans were labelled as "Syrians".{{sfn|Wevers|2001|p=237-251}} When reflecting on traditional influences of Greek terminology on English translations of the Septuagint, American orientalist Robert W. Rogers noted in 1921 that it was unfortunate that the change also affected later English versions.{{sfn|Rogers|1921|p=139}} In Greek sources, two writers spoke particularly clearly on the Arameans. [[Posidonius]], born in [[Apamea, Syria|Apamea]], as quoted by [[Strabo]], writes: "Those people whom we Greeks call Syrioi, call themselves Aramaioi".{{sfn|Frenschkowski|2019|p=468}} Further, [[Josephus]], who was born in [[Jerusalem]], defines the regions of "Aram's sons" as the Tranchonitis, Damascus "midway between Palestine and Coelo-Syria", Armenia, Bactria, and the Mesene around Spasini Charax.{{sfn|Frenschkowski|2019|p=468}}

===Early Christianity and Arab conquest===
The ancient Arameans lived in a close relationship with other distinct societies in the region. Throughout much of their history, they were heavily influenced by the [[cuneiform]] culture of Mesopotamia and the surrounding areas. Bilingual texts in [[Aramaic]] and the Assyrian dialect of [[Akkadian language|Akkadian]] are among the earliest examples of Aramaic writing. In the western regions, Aramean states had close contact with Israel, [[Phoenicia]], and northern [[Arabia]]. The Phoenician god Baʿalšamem was even incorporated into the Aramean tradition. Identifying distinct elements of the Aramean heritage in later times is challenging because of the diverse influences on their culture. For example, the earliest Syriac legal documents contain legal formulae that could be considered Aramean, but they could also be interpreted as [[Neo-Assyrian]] or [[Neo-Babylonian]].{{sfn|Healey|2014|p=391-392}}

After the establishment of [[Roman Syria]] in the 1st century BCE, Aramean lands became the frontier region between two empires, Roman and [[Parthian Empire|Parthian]], and later between their successor states, the [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] and [[Sasanid Empire|Sasanid]] Empires. Several minor states also existed in frontier regions, most notably the [[Kingdom of Osroene]], centred in the city of [[Edessa, Mesopotamia|Edessa]], known in Aramaic as Urhay.{{sfn|Harrak|1992|p=209–214}} However, it is not easy in either pre-Christian or Christian periods to trace purely-Aramean elements in Edessan culture.{{sfn|Healey|2014|p=395}}

During the [[Late Antiquity]] and the [[Early Middle Ages]], the Ancient Greek custom of using ''Syrian'' labels for Arameans and their language started to gain acceptance among an Aramaic-speaking literary and ecclesiastical elites. The practice of using ''Syrian'' labels as designations for Aramaic-speakers and their language was very common among ancient Greeks, and under their influence, the practice also became common among the Romans and Byzantines.{{sfn|Minov|2020|p=256-257}}

An [[Arabization]] process was initiated after the [[early Muslim conquests|Arab conquest]] in the 7th century. In the religious sphere of life, Aramaic-speaking Christians (such as [[Melkites]] in Palestine) were exposed to [[Islamization]], which created a base for gradual acceptance of the [[Arabic language]] not only as the dominant language of Islamic prayer and worship but also as a common language of public and domestic life. The acceptance of Arabic language became the main vessel of the gradual Arabization of Aramean communities throughout the Near East and ultimately resulted in their fragmentation and [[acculturation]]. Those processes affected not only Islamized Aramaic-speakers but also some of those who remained Christians, which created local communities of Arabic-speaking Christians of Syriac Christian origin who spoke Arabic in their public and domestic life but continued to belong to churches that used the liturgical Aramaic/Syriac language.{{sfn|Rubin|1998|p=149-162}}{{sfn|Bcheiry|2010|p=455-475}}

In the 10th century, the [[Byzantine Empire]] gradually reconquered much of northern Syria and upper Mesopotamia, including the cities of [[Melitene]] (934) and [[Antioch on the Orontes|Antioch]] (969) and thus liberated local Aramaic-speaking Christian communities from the Muslim rule. Byzantines favoured Eastern Orthodoxy, but the leadership of the Antiochian Oriental Orthodox Patriarchate succeeded in reaching agreement with the Byzantine authorities and thus secured religious tolerance.{{sfn|Debié|2009|p=110-111}} The Byzantines extended their rule up to [[Edessa, Mesopotamia|Edessa]] (1031) but were forced into a general retreat from Syria during the course of the 11th century and were pushed back by the newly-arrived [[Seljuk Turks]], who took Antioch (1084). The later establishment of [[First Crusade|Crusader]] states (1098), the [[Principality of Antioch]] and the [[County of Edessa]], created new challenges for local Aramaic-speaking Christians, both Oriental Orthodox and Eastern Orthodox.{{sfn|Weltecke|2006|p=95-124}}

==Culture==
The [[Iron Age]] culture of Syria is a topic of interest among scholars but is never referred to simply as "Aramean". Scholars have difficulty in identifying and isolating characteristic Aramean elements in the culture. Even in North Syria, where more substantial evidence is available, scholars still find it difficult to identify what is genuinely Aramean from what is borrowed from other cultures. Widespread scholarly opinion still maintains that since several ethnic groups, such as [[Luwians]] and Aramaeans, interacted in the region, one material culture with "mixed" elements resulted. The material culture appears to be so homogeneous that it "shows no clear distinctions between states dominated by Luwians or Aramaeans".{{sfn|Sader|2010|p=286-288}}

===Language===
[[File:Roman Orpheus Taming Wild Animals.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Ancient mosaic from [[Edessa, Mesopotamia|Edessa]] in [[Osroene]] (2nd century AD) with inscriptions in early [[Syriac language|Edessan Aramaic]]]]
[[File:Syrisch.svg|thumb|right|200px|Initial area of the [[Aramaic language]] in the 1st century, and its gradual decline]]
{{Main|Old Aramaic language}}
{{Further|Aramaic language}}
Arameans were mostly defined by their use of the West Semitic [[Old Aramaic language]] (1100 BCE – 200 CE), which was first written using the [[Phoenician alphabet]] but over time modified to a specifically-[[Aramaic alphabet]].
Aramaic first appeared in history during the opening centuries of the [[Iron Age]], when several newly-emerging chiefdoms decided to use it as a [[written language]]. The process coincided with a change from syllabic [[cuneiform]] to alphabetic scribal culture and the rise of a novel style of public [[epigraphy]], which was formerly unattested in Syria-Palestine. The language is considered a sister branch of the idiom used in the [[Bronze-Age]] city-state of [[Ugarit]], on the one hand, and [[Canaanite language|Canaanite]], which comprises languages further south in the speech area such as [[Hebrew]], [[Phoenician language|Phoenician]], and [[Moabite language|Moabite]], on the other hand. All three branches can be subsumed under the more general rubric [[Northwest Semitic]] and thus share a common origin. {{sfn|Gzella|2014|p=71}} The earliest direct witnesses of Aramaic, which were composed between the 10th and 8th centuries BC, are unanimously subsumed under the term "[[Old Aramaic]]". The early writings exhibit variation and anticipate the enormous linguistic diversity within the Aramaic language group. Despite the variation, they are connected by common literary forms and formulaic expressions. {{sfn|Gzella|2014|p=72}}

As early as the 8th century BCE, Aramaic competed with the East Semitic [[Akkadian language]] and script in [[Assyria]] and [[Babylonia]] and then spread throughout the [[Near East]] in various dialects. By around 800 BCE, Aramaic had become the ''[[lingua franca]]'' of the [[Neo-Assyrian Empire]], which continued during the Achaemenid period as [[Imperial Aramaic]]. Although it was marginalized by Greek during the [[Hellenistic period]], Aramaic in its varying dialects remained unchallenged as the common language of all [[Semitic peoples]] of the region until the [[Arabs]]' [[Islamic conquest of Mesopotamia]] in the 7th century AD, when the language became gradually superseded by [[Arabic]].

The vernacular dialects of Eastern Old Aramaic, spoken during the [[Neo-Assyrian Empire|Neo-Assyrian]], [[Neo-Babylonian]], and [[Achaemenid Empire|Achaemenid Persian]] empires, developed into various [[Aramaic#Eastern Middle Aramaic|Eastern Middle Aramaic]] dialects. Among these were the Aramaic dialects of the ancient region of [[Osrhoene]], one of which later became the [[liturgical language]] of [[Syriac Christianity]]. In the first centuries AD, the [[Christian Bible]] was [[Bible translations into Aramaic|translated]] into Aramaic and by the 4th century, the local Aramaic dialect of [[Edessa]] ([[Syriac language|Syriac]]: ''Urhay'') had evolved into a [[literary language]] known as Edessan Aramaic (Syriac: ''Urhaya'').{{sfn|Brock|1992a|p=16}}{{sfn|Brock|1992b|p=226}} Since Edessan Aramaic (''Urhaya'') was the primary liturgical language of Aramaic Christianity,{{sfn|Aufrecht|2001|p=149}}{{sfn|Quispel|2008|p=80}}{{sfn|Healey|2019|p=433–446}} it also became known as ''Edessan Syriac'' and was later defined by Western scholars as ''Classical Syriac''. This laid the foundation for the term ''Syriac Christianity''.{{sfn|Griffith|2002|p=5–20}}{{sfn|Healey|2007|p=115–127}}{{sfn|Healey|2014|p=391–402}} The [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Eastern Orthodox]] patriarchates were dominated by Greek episcopate and Greek linguistic and cultural traditions. The use of the Aramaic language in liturgical and literary life among [[Melkite|Melkites]] of [[Jews|Jewish]] descent persisted throughout the Middle Ages{{sfn|Griffith|1997|p=11–31}} until the 14th century,{{sfn|Brock|2011|p=96–97}} as exemplified in the use of a specific regional dialect known as [[Christian Palestinian Aramaic]] or ''Palestinian Syriac'' in the [[Palestine (region)|Palestine region]], [[Transjordan (region)|Transjordan]] and [[Sinai Peninsula|Sinai]].{{sfn|Gzella|2015|p=317-326}}

Descendant [[Neo-Aramaic languages]] of the [[Eastern Aramaic languages|Eastern Aramaic]] branch continue to serve as the spoken and written languages of the [[Assyrian people|Assyrians]], [[Mandeans]] and [[Mizrahi Jews]]. These languages are primarily found in [[Iraq]], northwestern [[Iran]], southeastern [[Turkey]] and northeastern [[Syria]], and to a lesser extent, in migrant communities in [[Armenia]], Georgia, [[Russia]], [[Lebanon]], [[Israel]], Jordan and [[Azerbaijan]], as well as in [[Assyrian–Chaldean–Syriac diaspora|Assyrian diaspora]] communities in the West, particularly in the [[United States]], [[Canada]], [[Great Britain]], [[Sweden]], [[Australia]] and [[Germany]].

[[Western Neo-Aramaic]], the only surviving modern variety of the [[Western Aramaic languages|Western]] branch, is now spoken by Muslims and Christians solely in [[Maaloula]] and [[Jubb'adin]] in the [[Qalamoun Mountains|Qalamoun mountains]] of southwestern Syria.

During the [[early modern period]], the study of the Aramaic language, both ancient and modern, was initiated among Western scholars. This led to the formation of [[Aramaic studies]] as a broader multidisciplinary field, encompassing the study of the cultural and historical heritage of Aramaic. The linguistic and historical aspects of Aramaic studies have been further expanded since the 19th century through archaeological excavations of ancient sites in the [[Near East]].{{sfn|Burnett|2005|p=421-436}}{{sfn|Niehr|2014|p=1-9}}{{sfn|Gzella|2015|p=3-16}}

===Religion===
{{See also|Canaanite religion|Mesopotamian religion}}
What is known of the religion of the Aramean groups is derived from excavated objects and temples and by Aramaic literary sources, as well as the names they had. Their religion did not feature any particular deity that could be called an Aramean god or goddess.{{sfn|Doak|2020|p=57}} It appears from their inscriptions and their names that the Arameans worshipped [[Canaanite religion|Canaanite]] and [[Mesopotamian religion|Mesopotamian]] gods such as [[Hadad]], [[Sin (mythology)|Sin]], [[Ishtar]] (whom they called [[Astarte]]), [[Shamash]], [[Tammuz (deity)|Tammuz]], [[Bel (mythology)|Bel]] and [[Nergal]], and [[Canaan|Canaaite]]-[[Phoenicia|Phoenecian]] deities such as the storm-god, [[El (deity)|El]], the supreme deity of Canaan, in addition to [[Anat]] (‘Atta) and others.{{Citation needed|date=March 2023}}

The Arameans who lived outside their homelands apparently followed the traditions of the countries in which they settled. The King of [[Damascus]], for instance, employed Phoenician sculptors and ivory-carvers. In Tell Halaf-Guzana, the palace of [[Kapara]], an Aramean ruler (9th century BCE) was decorated with orthostates and with statues that display a mixture of [[Mesopotamian]], [[Hittites|Hittite]] and [[Hurrian]] influences.

==Legacy==
{{further|Aramaic studies|Neo-Aramaic languages|Terms for Syriac Christians#Aramean identity}}
[[File:Limestone relief; stele. This unusual stele depicts an unidentified Aramaean king holding a tulip in one hand while grasping a staff or a spear in the other hand. From Tell e-esSalihiyeh, Damascus.jpg|thumb|Limestone relief; stele. This unusual stele depicts an unidentified Aramaean king holding a tulip in one hand while grasping a staff or a spear in the other hand. 11th century BCE. From Tell es-Salihiyeh, Damascus]]
The legacy of ancient Arameans became of particular interest for scholars during the [[early modern period]] and resulted in the emergence of [[Aramaic studies]] as a distinctive field, dedicated to the study of the Aramaic language.{{sfn|Burnett|2005|p=421-436}} By the 19th century, the ''Aramean question'' was formulated, and several scholarly theses were proposed regarding the development of the language and the history of the Arameans.{{sfn|Nöldeke|1871|p=113-131}}

In modern times, Aramean identity is held mainly by a number of [[Syriac Christians]], from southeastern [[Turkey]] and parts of [[Syria]], in the [[Aramean diaspora|diaspora]], especially in [[Germany]] and [[Sweden]].{{sfn|Woźniak|2012|p=73–83}}{{sfn|Woźniak|2015|p=483–496}} In 2014, [[Israel]] officially [[Arameans in Israel and Palestine|recognised Arameans]] as a distinctive minority.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://main.knesset.gov.il/EN/activity/mmm/Arameans_in_the_Middle_%20East_and_%20Israel.pdf |author=Eti Weissblei |year=2017 |title=Arameans in the Middle East and Israel: Historical Background, Modern National Identity, and Government Policy|website=[[Knesset]]}}</ref> Questions related to the [[minority rights]] of Arameans in some other countries were also brought to international attention.{{sfn|Teule|2012|p=47-56}}{{sfn|Sommer|2012|p=157-170}}
{{Clear}}

==See also==
<!---♦♦♦ Please keep the list in alphabetical order ♦♦♦--->
* [[Aramean kings]]
* [[Arameans in Israel]]
* [[Israelite-Aramean War]]
* [[Luwian-Aramean states]]
* [[Maronites]]
* [[Mhallami]]
* [[Paddan Aram]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

==Sources==
{{refbegin|2}}

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* {{Cite journal |last=Frye |first=Richard N. |author-link=Richard N. Frye |title=Assyria and Syria: Synonyms |journal=Journal of Near Eastern Studies |year=1992 |volume=51 |number=4 |pages=281–285 |doi=10.1086/373570 |jstor=545826 |s2cid=161323237 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/545826}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Greenfield |first=Jonas C. |author-link=Jonas C. Greenfield |title=The Aramean God Rammān/Rimmōn |journal=Israel Exploration Journal |year=1976 |volume=26 |number=4 |pages=195–198 |jstor=27925588 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/27925588}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Griffith |first=Sidney H. |author-link=Sidney H. Griffith |title=From Aramaic to Arabic: The Languages of the Monasteries of Palestine in the Byzantine and Early Islamic Periods |journal=Dumbarton Oaks Papers |year=1997 |volume=51 |pages=11–31 |doi=10.2307/1291760 |jstor=1291760 |url=https://doi.org/10.2307/1291760}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Griffith |first=Sidney H. |author-link=Sidney H. Griffith |title=Christianity in Edessa and the Syriac-Speaking World: Mani, Bar Daysan, and Ephraem, the Struggle for Allegiance on the Aramean Frontier |journal=Journal of the Canadian Society for Syriac Studies |year=2002 |volume=2 |pages=5–20 |doi=10.31826/jcsss-2009-020104 |s2cid=212688584 |url=http://www.syriacstudies.com/2018/11/29/christianity-in-edessa-and-the-syriac-speaking-world-mani-bar-daysan-and-ephraem-the-struggle-for-allegiance-on-the-aramean-frontier-by-sidney-griffith |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181211205946/http://www.syriacstudies.com/2018/11/29/christianity-in-edessa-and-the-syriac-speaking-world-mani-bar-daysan-and-ephraem-the-struggle-for-allegiance-on-the-aramean-frontier-by-sidney-griffith |archive-date=2018-12-11}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Griffith |first=Sidney H. |author-link=Sidney H. Griffith |title=St. Ephraem, Bar Daysān and the Clash of Madrāshê in Aram: Readings in St. Ephraem's Hymni contra Haereses |journal=The Harp: A Review of Syriac and Oriental Studies |year=2006 |volume=21 |pages=447–472 |doi=10.31826/9781463233105-026 |url=https://doi.org/10.31826/9781463233105-026}}
* {{Cite book |last=Griffith |first=Sidney H. |author-link=Sidney H. Griffith |chapter=Christian Lore and the Arabic Qur'an: The Companions of the Cave in Surat al-Kahf and in Syriac Christian Tradition |title=The Quran in its Historical Context |year=2007 |location=London-New York |publisher=Routledge |pages=109–137 |isbn=9781134109456 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LKt8AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA109}}
* {{Cite book |last=Gzella |first=Holger |chapter=Language and Script |title=The Aramaeans in Ancient Syria |year=2014 |location=Leiden |publisher=Brill |pages=71–107 |isbn=9789004229433 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sW_AAgAAQBAJ}}
* {{Cite book |last=Gzella |first=Holger |title=A Cultural History of Aramaic: From the Beginnings to the Advent of Islam |year=2015 |location=Leiden-Boston |publisher=Brill |isbn=9789004285101 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=y9UuBgAAQBAJ}}
* {{Cite book |last=Gzella |first=Holger |chapter=New Light on Linguistic Diversity in Pre-Achaemenid Aramaic: Wandering Arameans or Language Spread? |title=Wandering Arameans: Arameans Outside Syria: Textual and Archaeological Perspectives |year=2017 |location=Wiesbaden |publisher=Harrassowitz Verlag |pages=19–38 |chapter-url=https://www.academia.edu/34042986}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Harrak |first=Amir |title=The Ancient Name of Edessa |journal=Journal of Near Eastern Studies |year=1992 |volume=51 |issue=3 |pages=209–214 |doi=10.1086/373553 |s2cid=162190342 |url=http://www.aramaic-dem.org/English/History/The%20Ancient%20Name%20Of%20Edessa%20Harrak.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140809084028/http://www.aramaic-dem.org/English/History/The%20Ancient%20Name%20Of%20Edessa%20Harrak.pdf |archive-date=2014-08-09}}
* {{Cite book |last=Harrak |first=Amir |chapter=Arabisms in Part IV of the Syriac Chronicle of Zuqnin |title=Symposium Syriacum VII |year=1998 |location=Roma |publisher=Pontificio Istituto Orientale |pages=469–498 |isbn=9788872103197 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8ndhAAAAMAAJ}}
* {{Cite book |editor-last=Harrak |editor-first=Amir |title=The Chronicle of Zuqnīn, Parts III and IV: A.D. 488-775 |year=1999 |location=Toronto |publisher=Pontifical Institute of Mediaeval Studies |isbn=9780888442864 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_ApnAAAAMAAJ}}
* {{Cite book |last=Hasegawa |first=Shuichi |title=Aram and Israel during the Jehuite Dynasty |year=2012 |location=Berlin-Boston |publisher=Walter de Gruyter |isbn=9783110283488 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tpJQJOt0QA8C}}
* {{Cite book |last=Hauser |first=Stefan R. |chapter=The Church of the East until the Eighth Century |title=The Oxford Handbook of Early Christian Archaeology |year=2019 |location=New York |publisher=Oxford University Press |pages=431–450 |isbn=978-0-19-936904-1 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uWR7DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA431}}
* {{Cite book |last=Hausleiter |first=Arnulf |chapter=The Middle Euphrates, Iraq: Assyrian-Babylonian interactions in an Aramaean territory in the early 1st millennium BC |title=Parcours d'Orient: Recueil de textes offert à Christine Kepinski |year=2016 |location=Oxford |publisher=Archaeopress publishing |pages=107–120 |chapter-url=https://www.academia.edu/33424393}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Healey |first=John F. |title=The Edessan Milieu and the Birth of Syriac |journal=Hugoye: Journal of Syriac Studies |year=2007 |volume=10 |number=2 |pages=115–127 |url=https://raw.githubusercontent.com/Beth-Mardutho/hugoye-data/master/pdf/vol10/HV10N2Healey.pdf}}
* {{Cite book |last=Healey |first=John F. |chapter=Aramaean Heritage |title=The Aramaeans in Ancient Syria |year=2014 |location=Leiden |publisher=Brill |pages=391–402 |isbn=9789004229433 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sW_AAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA391}}
* {{Cite book |last=Healey |first=John F. |chapter=Arameans and Aramaic in Transition – Western Influences and the Roots of Aramean Christianity |title=Research on Israel and Aram: Autonomy, Independence and Related Issues |year=2019 |location=Tübingen |publisher=Mohr Siebeck |pages=433–446 |isbn=9783161577192 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=39nPxgEACAAJ}}
* {{Cite book |last=Heinrichs |first=Wolfhart |author-link=Wolfhart Heinrichs |chapter=The Modern Assyrians - Name and Nation |title=Semitica: Serta philologica Constantino Tsereteli dicata |year=1993 |location=Torino |publisher=Zamorani |pages=99–114 |isbn=9788871580241 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VMZiAAAAMAAJ}}
* {{Cite book |last=Jarjour |first=Tala |chapter=Chant as the Articulation of Christian Aramean Spirithood |title=The Oxford Handbook of Music and World Christianities |year=2016 |location=Oxford |publisher=Oxford University Press |pages=187–207 |isbn=9780199859993 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fCaPCwAAQBAJ}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Joosten |first=Jan |title=The Aramaic Background of the Seventy: Language, Culture and History |journal=Bulletin of the International Organization for Septuagint and Cognate Studies |year=2010 |volume=43 |pages=53–72 |url=https://www.academia.edu/33401126}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Joseph |first=John B. |author-link=John Joseph (historian) |title=Assyria and Syria: Synonyms? |journal=Journal of Assyrian Academic Studies |year=1997 |volume=11 |number=2 |pages=37–43 |url=http://www.jaas.org/edocs/v11n2/JohnJoseph.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200715002908/http://www.jaas.org/edocs/v11n2/JohnJoseph.pdf |archive-date=2020-07-15}}
* {{Cite book |last=Kühn |first=Dagmar |chapter=Society, Institutions, Law, and Economy |title=The Aramaeans in Ancient Syria |year=2014 |location=Leiden |publisher=Brill |pages=37–70 |isbn=9789004229433 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sW_AAgAAQBAJ}}
* {{Cite book |last=Levin |first=Yigal |chapter=My Father was a Wandering Aramean: Biblical Views of the Ancestral Relationship between Israel and Aram |title=Wandering Arameans: Arameans Outside Syria: Textual and Archaeological Perspectives |year=2017 |location=Wiesbaden |publisher=Harrassowitz Verlag |pages=39–52 |chapter-url=https://www.academia.edu/34080056}}
* {{Cite book |last=Lemaire |first=André |chapter=Anatolia |title=The Aramaeans in Ancient Syria |year=2014 |location=Leiden |publisher=Brill |pages=319–328 |isbn=9789004229433 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sW_AAgAAQBAJ}}
* {{Cite book |last=Lipiński |first=Edward |author-link=Edward Lipiński (orientalist) |title=The Aramaeans: Their Ancient History, Culture, Religion |year=2000 |location=Leuven |publisher=Peeters Publishers |isbn=9789042908598 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rrMKKtiBBI4C}}
* {{Cite book |last=Lipiński |first=Edward |author-link=Edward Lipiński (orientalist) |chapter=The Aramaeans in the West (13th–8th centuries) |title=Arameans, Chaldeans, and Arabs in Babylonia and Palestine in the First Millennium B.C. |year=2013 |location=Wiesbaden |publisher=Harrassowitz Verlag |pages=123–147 |isbn=9783447065443 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OuVQnwEACAAJ}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Mazar |first=Benjamin |author-link=Benjamin Mazar |title=The Aramean Empire and Its Relations with Israel |journal=The Biblical Archaeologist |year=1962 |volume=25 |number=4 |pages=97–120 |doi=10.2307/3210938 |jstor=3210938 |s2cid=165844359 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3210938}}
* {{Cite book |last=Merlo |first=Paolo |chapter=Literature |title=The Aramaeans in Ancient Syria |year=2014 |location=Leiden |publisher=Brill |pages=109–125 |isbn=9789004229433 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sW_AAgAAQBAJ}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Millard |first=Alan R. |author-link=Alan R. Millard |title=A Wandering Aramean |journal=Journal of Near Eastern Studies |year=1980 |volume=39 |number=2 |pages=153–155 |doi=10.1086/372792 |jstor=545123 |s2cid=161083532 |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/545123}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Millard |first=Alan R. |author-link=Alan R. Millard |title=Assyrians and Arameans |journal=Iraq: British Institute for the Study of Iraq |year=1983 |volume=45 |number=1 |pages=101–108 |doi=10.2307/4200184 |jstor=4200184 |s2cid=192959948 |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/4200184}}
* {{Cite book |last=Minov |first=Sergey |title=Memory and Identity in the Syriac Cave of Treasures: Rewriting the Bible in Sasanian Iran |year=2020 |location=Leiden-Boston |publisher=Brill |isbn=9789004445512 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9AsOEAAAQBAJ}}
* {{Cite journal |last1=Mutlu-Numansen |first1=Sofia |last2=Ossewaarde |first2=Marinus |title=A Struggle for Genocide Recognition: How the Aramean, Assyrian, and Chaldean Diasporas Link Past and Present |journal=Holocaust and Genocide Studies |year=2019 |volume=33 |issue=3 |pages=412–428 |doi=10.1093/hgs/dcz045 |url=https://research.utwente.nl/files/191702532/Mutlu_Numansen2019struggle.pdf}}
* {{Cite book |last=Niehr |first=Herbert |chapter=Introduction |title=The Aramaeans in Ancient Syria |year=2014 |location=Leiden |publisher=Brill |pages=1–9 |isbn=9789004229433 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sW_AAgAAQBAJ}}
* {{Cite book |last=Niehr |first=Herbert |chapter=Religion |title=The Aramaeans in Ancient Syria |year=2014a |location=Leiden |publisher=Brill |pages=127–203 |isbn=9789004229433 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sW_AAgAAQBAJ}}
* {{Cite book |last=Niehr |first=Herbert |chapter=Phoenicia |title=The Aramaeans in Ancient Syria |year=2014b |location=Leiden |publisher=Brill |pages=329–338 |isbn=9789004229433 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sW_AAgAAQBAJ}}
* {{Cite book |last=Niehr |first=Herbert |chapter=Northern Arabia |title=The Aramaeans in Ancient Syria |year=2014c |location=Leiden |publisher=Brill |pages=378–390 |isbn=9789004229433 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sW_AAgAAQBAJ}}
* {{Cite book |last=Nissinen |first=Martti |chapter=Assyria |title=The Aramaeans in Ancient Syria |year=2014 |location=Leiden |publisher=Brill |pages=273–296 |isbn=9789004229433 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sW_AAgAAQBAJ}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Nöldeke |first=Theodor |author-link=Theodor Nöldeke |title=Die Namen der aramäischen Nation und Sprache |journal=Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenländischen Gesellschaft |year=1871 |volume=25 |number=1–2 |pages=113–131 |jstor=43366019 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/43366019}}
* {{Cite book |last=Novák |first=Mirko |chapter=Architecture |title=The Aramaeans in Ancient Syria |year=2014 |location=Leiden |publisher=Brill |pages=255–271 |isbn=9789004229433 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sW_AAgAAQBAJ}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Öztemiz den Butter |first=Mutay |title=Cultural Boundaries and Homeland among the Arameans (Syriacs) |journal=Parole de l'Orient |year=2017 |volume=43 |pages=303–314}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Palmer |first=Andrew N. |title=Paradise Restored |journal=Oriens Christianus |year=2003 |volume=87 |pages=1–46 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OV3YAAAAMAAJ}}
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* {{Cite journal |last=Power |first=Edmond |title=The National Problem in Syria and Mesopotamia |journal=Studies: An Irish Quarterly Review |year=1919 |volume=8 |number=29 |pages=77–94 |jstor=30092955 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/30092955}}
* {{Cite book |last=Rogers |first=Robert W. |title=A Book of Old Testament Lessons for Public Reading in Churches |year=1921 |location=New York |publisher=Abingdon Press |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3PwOAAAAQAAJ}}
* {{Cite book |editor-last=Roller |editor-first=Duane W. |editor-link=Duane W. Roller |title=The Geography of Strabo: An English Translation, with Introduction and Notes |year=2014 |location=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=9781139952491 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=33GFAwAAQBAJ}}
* {{Cite book |last=Rompay |first=Lucas van |chapter=Jacob of Edessa and the Early History of Edessa |title=After Bardaisan: Studies on Continuity and Change in Syriac Christianity |year=1999 |location=Louvain |publisher=Peeters Publishers |pages=269–285 |isbn=9789042907355 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2b4ADqorY1oC&pg=PA269}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Rompay |first=Lucas van |title=Past and Present Perceptions of Syriac Literary Tradition |journal=Hugoye: Journal of Syriac Studies |year=2000 |volume=3 |number=1 |pages=71–103 |doi=10.31826/hug-2010-030105 |s2cid=212688244 |url=https://raw.githubusercontent.com/Beth-Mardutho/hugoye-data/master/pdf/vol3/HV3N1VanRompay.pdf |doi-access=free}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Rompay |first=Lucas van |title=Mallpânâ dilan Suryâyâ Ephrem in the Works of Philoxenus of Mabbog: Respect and Distance |journal=Hugoye: Journal of Syriac Studies |year=2004 |volume=7 |number=1 |pages=83–105 |doi=10.31826/hug-2011-070107 |s2cid=212688667 |url=https://raw.githubusercontent.com/Beth-Mardutho/hugoye-data/master/pdf/vol7/HV7N1VanRompay.pdf |doi-access=free}}
* {{Cite book |last=Rubin |first=Milka |chapter=Arabization versus Islamization in the Palestinian Melkite Community during the Early Muslim Period |title=Sharing the Sacred: Religious Contacts and Conflicts in the Holy Land: First-fifteenth Centuries CE |year=1998 |location=Jerusalem |publisher=Yad Izhak Ben Zvi |pages=149–162 |chapter-url=https://www.academia.edu/22869462}}
* {{Cite book |last=Sader |first=Hélène |chapter=The 12th Century B.C. in Syria: The Problem of the Rise of the Aramaeans |title=The Crisis Years: The 12th Century B.C. from beyond the Danube to the Tigris |year=1992 |location=Dubuque |publisher=Kendall-Hunt |pages=157–164 |chapter-url=https://www.scribd.com/doc/151103604}}
* {{Cite book |last=Sader |first=Hélène |chapter=The Aramaean Kingdoms of Syria: Origin and Formation Processes |title=Essays on Syria in the Iron Age |year=2000 |location=Louvain |publisher=Peeters Press |pages=61–76 |isbn=9789042908789 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3hMLAQAAMAAJ}}
* {{Cite book |last=Sader |first=Hélène |chapter=The Aramaeans of Syria: Some Considerations on their Origin and Material Culture |title=The Books of Kings: Sources, Composition, Historiography and Reception |year=2010 |location=Leiden-Boston |publisher=Brill |pages=273–300 |isbn=978-9004177291 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1SXbIFYu-ZAC}}
* {{Cite book |last=Sader |first=Hélène |chapter=History |title=The Aramaeans in Ancient Syria |year=2014 |location=Leiden |publisher=Brill |pages=11–36 |editor=Herbert Niehr|isbn=9789004229433 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sW_AAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA11}}
* {{Cite book |last=Sader |first=Hélène |chapter=The Formation and Decline of the Aramaean States in Iron Age Syria |title=State Formation and State Decline in the Near and Middle East |year=2016 |location=Wiesbaden |publisher=Harrassowitz Verlag |pages=61–76 |isbn=9783447105651 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tUtmjwEACAAJ}}
* {{Cite book |last=Saggs |first=Henry W. F. |author-link=Henry W. F. Saggs |title=The Might That Was Assyria |year=1984 |location=London |publisher=Sidgwick & Jackson |isbn=9780312035112 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8MNJGwAACAAJ}}
* {{Cite book |last=Salvesen |first=Alison |chapter=Keeping it in the Family? Jacob and his Aramean Heritage according to Jewish and Christian Sources |title=The Exegetical Encounter between Jews and Christians in Late Antiquity |year=2009 |location=Leiden-Boston |publisher=Brill |pages=205–220 |isbn=978-9004177277 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eRX2ft6Q2D4C}}
* {{Cite book |last=Sato |first=Noriko |chapter=The Memory of Sayfo and Its Relation to the Identity of Contemporary Assyrian/Aramean Christians in Syria |title=Sayfo 1915: An Anthology of Essays on the Genocide of Assyrians/Arameans during the First World War |year=2018 |location=Piscataway, NJ |publisher=Gorgias Press |pages=305–326 |isbn=9781463207304 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=64jttwEACAAJ}}
* {{Cite book |last=Sergi |first=Omer |chapter=The Battle of Ramoth-gilead and the Rise of the Aramean Hegemony in the Southern Levant during the Second Half of the 9th Century BCE |title=Wandering Arameans: Arameans Outside Syria: Textual and Archaeological Perspectives |year=2017 |location=Wiesbaden |publisher=Harrassowitz Verlag |pages=81–98 |chapter-url=https://www.academia.edu/38418670}}
* {{Cite book |editor-last=Sokoloff |editor-first=Michael |title=Arameans, Aramaic and the Aramaic Literary Tradition |year=1983 |location=Tel Aviv |publisher=Bar Ilan University Press |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0oyujgEACAAJ}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Soldi |first=Sebastiano |title=Aramaeans and Assyrians in North-Western Syria: Material Evidence from Tell Afis |journal=Syria: Archéologie, Art et Histoire |year=2009 |volume=86 |pages=97–118 |url=https://www.academia.edu/536084}}
* {{Cite book |last=Sommer |first=Renate |author-link=Renate Sommer |chapter=The Role of Religious Freedom in the Context of the Accession Negotiations between the European Union and Turkey – The Example of the Arameans |title=The Slow Disappearance of the Syriacs from Turkey and of the Grounds of the Mor Gabriel Monastery |year=2012 |location=Münster |publisher=LIT Verlag |pages=157–170 |isbn=9783643902689 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=no5_QSBVq7kC&pg=PA157}}
* {{Cite book |last=Spieckermann |first=Hermann |author-link=Hermann Spieckermann |chapter=Arameans |title=The Encyclopedia of Christianity |year=1999 |volume=1 |location=Grand Rapids |publisher=Eerdmans |pages=114–115 |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofch0001unse_t6f2/page/114}}
* {{Cite book |last=Streck |first=Michael P. |chapter=Babylonia |title=The Aramaeans in Ancient Syria |year=2014 |location=Leiden |publisher=Brill |pages=297–318 |isbn=9789004229433 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sW_AAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA297}}
* {{Cite book |last=Teule |first=Herman G. B. |chapter=Who Are the Syriacs? |title=The Slow Disappearance of the Syriacs from Turkey and of the Grounds of the Mor Gabriel Monastery |year=2012 |location=Münster |publisher=LIT Verlag |pages=47–56 |isbn=9783643902689 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=no5_QSBVq7kC&pg=PA47}}
* {{Cite book |last=Van-Lennep |first=Henry J. |title=Bible Lands: Their Modern Customs and Manners Illustrative of Scripture |year=1875 |location=New York |publisher=Harper & Brothers |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0EJJAQAAMAAJ}}
* {{Cite book |last=Vittmann |first=Günter |chapter=Arameans in Egypt |title=Wandering Arameans: Arameans Outside Syria: Textual and Archaeological Perspectives |year=2017 |location=Wiesbaden |publisher=Harrassowitz Verlag |pages=229–280 |chapter-url=https://www.academia.edu/36662482}}
* {{Cite book |last=Wells |first=Herbert G. |author-link=Herbert George Wells |title=The New and Revised Outline of History |year=1920 |volume=1 |location=New York |publisher=Macmillan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=66o-AAAAYAAJ}}
* {{Cite book |last=Weltecke |first=Dorothea |chapter=On the Syriac Orthodox in the Principality of Antioch during the Crusader Period |title=East and West in the Medieval Eastern Mediterranean I: Antioch from the Byzantine Reconquest until the End of the Crusader Principality |year=2006 |location=Leuven |publisher=Peeters Publishers |pages=95–124 |chapter-url=http://kops.uni-konstanz.de/bitstream/handle/123456789/19411/Weltecke_194119.pdf}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Weltecke |first=Dorothea |title=Michael the Syrian and Syriac Orthodox Identity |journal=Church History and Religious Culture |year=2009 |volume=89 |number=1–3 |pages=115–125 |doi=10.1163/187124109X408023 |url=https://kops.uni-konstanz.de/bitstream/handle/123456789/6469/Weltecke_Michael_Syrian.pdf}}
* {{Cite book |last=Wevers |first=John W. |chapter=Aram and Aramaean in the Septuagint |title=The World of the Aramaeans |volume=1 |year=2001 |location=Sheffield |publisher=Sheffield Academic Press |pages=237–251 |isbn=9781841271583 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7WatAwAAQBAJ}}
* {{Cite book |editor-last=Witakowski |editor-first=Witold |title=The Syriac Chronicle of Pseudo-Dionysius of Tel-Mahrē: A Study in the History of Historiography |year=1987 |location=Uppsala-Stockholm |publisher=University of Uppsala |isbn=9789155419677 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UIoWAQAAIAAJ}}
* {{Cite book |last=Woźniak |first=Marta |chapter=Far from Aram-Nahrin: The Suryoye Diaspora Experience |title=Border Terrains: World Diasporas in the 21st Century |year=2012 |location=Oxford |publisher=United Kingdom Inter-Disciplinary Press |pages=73–83 |isbn=9781848881174 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uXvnDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA73}} 
* {{Cite journal |last=Woźniak |first=Marta |title=The Modem Arameans: In Search for National Identity |journal=Parole de l'Orient |year=2015 |volume=40 |pages=483–496}}
* {{Cite book |last=Wunsch |first=Cornelia |chapter=Glimpses on the Lives of Deportees in Rural Babylonia. |title=Arameans, Chaldeans, and Arabs in Babylonia and Palestine in the First Millennium B.C. |year=2013 |location=Wiesbaden |publisher=Harrassowitz Verlag |pages=247–260 |chapter-url=https://www.academia.edu/1224378}}
* {{Cite book |last=Younger |first=Kenneth Lawson |chapter=The Late Bronze Age/Iron Age Transition and the Origins of the Arameans |title=Ugarit at Seventy-Five |year=2007 |location=Winona Lake |publisher=Eisenbrauns |pages=131–174 |isbn=9781575061436 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3xbHT7ZiAtUC&pg=PA131}}
* {{Cite book |last=Younger |first=Kenneth Lawson |chapter=War and Peace in the Origins of the Arameans |title=Krieg und Frieden im Alten Vorderasien |year=2014 |location=Münster |publisher=Ugarit Verlag |pages=861–874 |chapter-url=https://www.academia.edu/9122190}}
* {{Cite book |last=Younger |first=Kenneth Lawson |title=A Political History of the Arameans: From Their Origins to the End of Their Polities |year=2016 |location=Atlanta |publisher=SBL Press |isbn=9781628370843 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vpgsDQAAQBAJ}}
* {{Cite book |last=Younger |first=Kenneth Lawson |chapter=Tiglath-Pileser I and the Initial Conflicts of the Assyrians with the Arameans |title=Wandering Arameans: Arameans Outside Syria: Textual and Archaeological Perspectives |year=2017 |location=Wiesbaden |publisher=Harrassowitz Verlag |pages=195–228 |chapter-url=https://www.academia.edu/34382602}}
* {{Cite book |last=Younger |first=Kenneth Lawson |chapter=Reflections on Hazael’s Empire in Light of Recent Study in the Biblical and Ancient Near Eastern Texts |title=Writing and Rewriting History in Ancient Israel and Near Eastern Cultures |year=2020 |location=Wiesbaden |publisher=Harrassowitz Verlag |pages=79–102 |isbn=9783447113632 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0t9CzQEACAAJ}}
* {{Cite book |last=Zadok |first=Ran |chapter=The Onomastics of the Chaldean, Aramean, and Arabian Tribes in Babylonia during the First Millennium |title=Arameans, Chaldeans, and Arabs in Babylonia and Palestine in the First Millennium B.C. |year=2013 |location=Wiesbaden |publisher=Harrassowitz Verlag |pages=261–336 |isbn=9783447065443 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OuVQnwEACAAJ}}

{{refend}}

==External links==
* {{Commons category-inline}}

{{Ancient states and regions of the Levant}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Arameans}}
[[Category:Arameans| ]]
[[Category:States and territories established in the 12th century BC]]
[[Category:States and territories disestablished in the 8th century BC]]
[[Category:Shem]]
[[Category:Ancient Levant]]
[[Category:Semitic-speaking peoples]]
[[Category:Ancient peoples of the Near East]]