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Serbia gained its autonomy from the [[Ottoman Empire]] in two uprisings in [[First Serbian Uprising|1804]] (led by [[Đorđe Petrović]] – Karađorđe) and [[Second Serbian Uprising|1815]] (led by [[Miloš Obrenović]]), although Turkish troops continued to garrison the capital, [[Belgrade]], until 1867. The Serbs launched not only a national revolution but a social one as well. In 1817 Principality of Serbia was granted de facto independence from the Ottoman Empire. Complete independence arrived in 1878.
Serbia gained considerable internal autonomy from the [[Ottoman Empire]] in two uprisings in [[First Serbian Uprising|1804]] (led by [[Đorđe Petrović]] – Karađorđe) and [[Second Serbian Uprising|1815]] (led by [[Miloš Obrenović]]). Ottoman troops continued to garrison the capital, [[Belgrade]], until 1867. The Serbs launched not only a national revolution but a social one as well. Complete independence arrived in 1878. Serbian activists promoted ethnic nationalism in the Balkans, targeting both the remnants of the Ottoman Empire and the equally fragile Austro-Hungarian Empire. The Serbia followed Montenegro against the Ottomans, and one full independence from the Congress of Berlin in 1878. Serbia played a central role in the Balkan wars of the early 20th century, which practically eliminated the Ottoman presence in Europe <ref>Harry N. Howard, "The Balkan Wars in perspective: their significance for Turkey." ''Balkan Studies'' 3.2 (1962): 267-276. </ref>


===Russo-Turkish War (1828–29)===
===Russo-Turkish War (1828–29)===

Revision as of 15:28, 9 August 2020

Reis Efendi

The foreign relations of the Ottoman Empire were characterized by competition with the Persian Empire to the east, Russia to the north, and Europe to the west. The control over European minorities began to collapse in the 19th century, leading to the loss of nearly all European territory. Greece was the first to break free. By the early 20th century Austria-Hungary annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina, the Bulgarian Declaration of Independence soon followed. The Ottoman Empire allied itself with Germany in the First World War, and lost. The British successfully mobilized Arab nationalism. The Ottoman Empire thereby lost its Arab possessions, and itself soon collapsed in the early 1920s. For the period after 1923 see Foreign relations of Turkey.

Structure

The Ottoman Empire's diplomatic structure was unconventional and departed in many ways from its European counterparts. Traditionally, foreign affairs were conducted by the Reis ül-Küttab (Chief Clerk or Secretary of State) who also had other duties. In 1836, a Foreign Ministry was created.[1]

Ambassadors

Ambassadors from the Ottoman Empire were usually appointed on a temporary and limited basis, as opposed to the resident ambassadors sent by other European nations.[2][3] The Ottomans sent 145 temporary envoys to Venice between 1384 and 1600.[4] The first resident Ottoman ambassador was not seen until Yusuf Agah Efendi was sent to London in 1793.[2][5]

Ambassadors to the Ottoman Empire began arriving shortly after the fall of Constantinople. The first was Bartelemi Marcello from Venice in 1454. The French ambassador Jean de La Forêt later arrived in 1535.[6] In 1583, the ambassadors from Venice and France would attempt unsuccessfully to block William Harborne of England from taking up residence in Istanbul. This move was repeated by Venice, France and England in trying to block Dutch ambassador Cornelius Haga in 1612.[7]

Capitulations

Main article: Capitulations of the Ottoman Empire

Capitulations were a unique practice of Muslim diplomacy that was adopted by Ottoman rulers. In legal and technical terms, they were unilateral agreements made by the Sultan to a nation's merchants. These agreements were temporary, and subject to renewal by subsequent Sultans.[8][9] The origins of the capitulations comes from Harun al Rashid and his dealings with the Frankish kingdoms, but they were also used by both his successors and by the Byzantine Empire.[9]

1450-1800

The Ottoman Empire was a crucial part of the European states system and actively played a role in their affairs, due in part to their coterminous periods of development.[10][11]

Towards the end of the 15th century, the Ottomans began to play a larger role in the Italian Peninsula. In 1494, both the Papacy and the Kingdom of Naples petitioned the Sultan directly for his assistance against Charles VIII of France in the First Italian War.[12]

Ottoman policy towards Europe during the 16th century was one of disruption against the Habsburg dynasties.[10] The Ottomans collaborated with Francis I of France and his Protestant allies in the 1530s while fighting the Habsburgs.[10] Although the French had sought an alliance with the Ottomans as early as 1531, one was not concluded until 1536. The sultan then gave the French freedom of trade throughout the empire, and plans were drawn up for an invasion of Italy from both the north and the south in 1537.[13]

Francis I later admitted to a Venetian ambassador that the Ottoman Empire was the only thing that prevented Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor from creating a Europe-wide empire under Habsburg dominion.[14][15]

The Dutch allied with the Ottomans. Prince William of Orange coordinated his strategic moves with those of the Ottomans during the Turkish negotiations with Philip II of Spain in the 1570s.[10] After the Habsburgs inherited the Portuguese crown in 1580, Dutch forces attacked their Portuguese trading rivals while the Turks, supportive of the Dutch bid for independence, attacked the Habsburgs in Eastern Europe.[16]

Great Turkish War: 1683–1699

The Ottoman Empire in 1683; core possessions in dark green; vassal or autonomous areas in light green.
Main articles: Ottoman–Habsburg wars and Ottoman wars in Europe

The Great Turkish War or the "War of the Holy League" was a series of conflicts between the Ottoman Empire and ad-hoc European coalition the Holy League (Latin: Sacra Ligua). The coalition was organized by Pope Innocent XI and included the Papal States, the Holy Roman Empire under Habsburg Emperor Leopold I, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth of John III Sobieski, and the Venetian Republic; Russia joined the League in 1686. Intensive fighting began in 1683 when Ottoman commander Kara Mustafa brought an army of 200,000 soldiers to besiege, Vienna.[17] The issue was control of Central and Eastern Europe. By September, the invaders were defeated in full retreat down the Danube. It ended with the signing of the Treaty of Karlowitz in 1699. The war was a defeat for the Ottoman Empire, which for the first time lost large amounts of territory. It lost lands in Hungary and Poland, as well as part of the western Balkans. The war marked the first time Russia was involved in a western European alliance.[18][19]

19th century

Further information: International relations of the Great Powers (1814–1919) § Ottoman Empire

As the 19th century progressed the Ottoman Empire grew weaker and Britain increasingly became its protector, even fighting the Crimean War in the 1850s to help it out against Russia.[20] Three British leaders played major roles. Lord Palmerston in the 1830–65 era considered the Ottoman Empire an essential component in the balance of power, was the most favourable toward Constantinople. William Gladstone in the 1870s sought to build a Concert of Europe that would support the survival of the empire. In the 1880s and 1890s Lord Salisbury contemplated an orderly dismemberment of it, in such a way as to reduce rivalry between the greater powers.[21]

Loss of Egypt: 1798-1807

The brief French invasion of Egypt led by Napoleon Bonaparte began in 1798. Napoleon won early victories and made an initially successful expedition into Syria. The British Royal Navy sank the French fleet at Battle of the Nile. Napoleon managed to escape with a small staff in 1799, leaving the army behind. When peace with Britain came (briefly) in 1803 Napoleon brought home his Armée d'Orient.[22]

Greek War of Independence 1821–1830

Main article: Greek War of Independence

The Greek War of Independence was a successful uprising waged by Greek revolutionaries against the Ottoman Empire between 1821 and 1830. The Greeks were factionalized and fought their own civil war. The Greeks won widespread support from elite opinion in Europe, and were aided militarily and diplomatically by Great Britain, France and Russia. The Ottomans were aided militarily by Egypt.[23][24]

Greece came under Ottoman rule in the late 15th century. During the following centuries, there were sporadic but unsuccessful Greek uprisings against Ottoman rule. In 1814, a secret organization called Filiki Eteria (Society of Friends) was founded with the aim of liberating Greece, encouraged by the revolutionary fervor gripping Europe in that period. The Filiki Eteria planned to launch revolts in the Peloponnese, the Danubian Principalities, and Constantinople itself, which had a large Greek element. The first revolt began on 6 March/21 February 1821 in the Danubian Principalities, but it was soon put down by the Ottomans. The events in the north urged the Greeks in the Peloponnese (Morea) into action and on 17 March 1821, the Maniots were first to declare war. In September 1821, the Greeks under the leadership of Theodoros Kolokotronis captured Tripolitsa. Revolts in Crete, Macedonia, and Central Greece broke out, but were eventually suppressed. Meanwhile, makeshift Greek fleets achieved success against the Ottoman navy in the Aegean Sea and prevented Ottoman reinforcements from arriving by sea.

Tensions soon developed among different Greek factions, leading to two consecutive civil wars. The Ottoman Sultan called in Muhammad Ali of Egypt, who sent his son Ibrahim Pasha to Greece with an army to suppress the revolt in return for territorial gains. Ibrahim landed in the Peloponnese in February 1825 and brought most of the peninsula under Egyptian control by the end of that year. Despite a failed invasion of Mani, Athens also fell and the revolution looked all but lost.

At that point, the three Great Powers—Russia, Britain and France—decided to intervene, sending their naval squadrons to Greece in 1827. Following news that the combined Ottoman–Egyptian fleet was going to attack the island of Hydra, the allied fleets intercepted the Ottoman navy and won a decisive victory at the Battle of Navarino. In 1828 the Egyptian army withdrew under pressure of a French expeditionary force. The Ottoman garrisons in the Peloponnese surrendered, and the Greek revolutionaries proceeded to retake central Greece. Russia invaded the Ottoman Empire and forced it to accept Greek autonomy in the Treaty of Adrianople (1829). After nine years of war, Greece was finally recognized as an independent state under the London Protocol of February 1830. Further negotiations in 1832 led to the London Conference and the Treaty of Constantinople; these defined the final borders of the new state and established Prince Otto of Bavaria as the first king of Greece.

Serbian Revolution and Autonomous Principality (1804–1878)

Main articles: Serbian Revolution and Serbian-Turkish Wars (1876-1878)

Serbia gained considerable internal autonomy from the Ottoman Empire in two uprisings in 1804 (led by Đorđe Petrović – Karađorđe) and 1815 (led by Miloš Obrenović). Ottoman troops continued to garrison the capital, Belgrade, until 1867. The Serbs launched not only a national revolution but a social one as well. Complete independence arrived in 1878. Serbian activists promoted ethnic nationalism in the Balkans, targeting both the remnants of the Ottoman Empire and the equally fragile Austro-Hungarian Empire. The Serbia followed Montenegro against the Ottomans, and one full independence from the Congress of Berlin in 1878. Serbia played a central role in the Balkan wars of the early 20th century, which practically eliminated the Ottoman presence in Europe [25]

Russo-Turkish War (1828–29)

The Russo-Turkish War of 1828–1829 was sparked by the Greek War of Independence of 1821–1829. War broke out after the Ottoman Sultan Mahmud II closed the Dardanelles to Russian ships and revoked the 1826 Akkerman Convention in retaliation for Russian participation in October 1827 in the Battle of Navarino. The results included Russian victory, Treaty of Adrianople, Russian occupation of Danubian Principalities, Greek victory and independence from the Ottoman Empire


Persian Gulf

Britain planned bases in the Persian Gulf region to protect India. Yemen was the first choice, since it was a convenient port. By 1800 the Porte permitted the creation of British trading stations in Mocha, Yemen. British intrigues with local leaders troubled the Porte which in 1818 asked Muhammad Ali to pacify the region. The British government worked with Ali to take over the strategically significant port of Aden, despite opposition from Constantinople.[26]

The Ottomans were concerned about the British expansion from India into the Red Sea and Arabia. They returned to the Tihamah in 1849 after an absence of two centuries.[27]

Crimean War 1854–56

Main article: Crimean War

The Crimean War (1854–56) was fought between Russia on the one hand and an alliance of Britain, France, Sardinia, and the Ottoman Empire on the other. Russia was defeated but the casualties were very heavy on all sides, and historians look at the entire episode as a series of blunders.[28][29]

The war began with Russian demands to protect Christian sites in the Holy Land. The churches quickly settled that problem, but it escalated out of hand as Russia put continuous pressure on the Ottomans. Diplomatic efforts failed. The Sultan declared war against Russia in October 1851. Following an Ottoman naval disaster in November, Britain and France declared war against Russia.[30] It proved quite difficult to reach Russian territory, and the Royal Navy could not defeat the Russian defences in the Baltic. Most of the battles took place in the Crimean peninsula, which the Allies finally seized. London, shocked to discover that France was secretly negotiating with Russia to form a postwar alliance to dominate Europe, dropped its plans to attack St. Petersburg and instead signed a one-sided armistice with Russia that achieved almost none of its war aims.

Diplomats at the Congress of Paris, 1856, settled the Crimean War; painting by Edouard Louis Dubufe.

The Treaty of Paris signed March 30, 1856, ended the war. Russia gave up a little land and relinquished its claim to a protectorate over the Christians in the Ottoman domains. The Black Sea was demilitarized, and an international commission was set up to guarantee freedom of commerce and navigation on the Danube River. Moldavia and Wallachia remained under nominal Ottoman rule, but would be granted independent constitutions and national assemblies. However, by 1870, the Russians had regained most of their concessions.[31]

The war helped modernize warfare by introducing major new technologies such as railways, the telegraph, and modern nursing methods. The Ottoman Empire and Russia, with their weak industrial bases, could not keep up with the major powers, so they could no longer promote stability. This opened the way for Napoleon III in France and Otto von Bismarck in Prussia to launch a series of wars in the 1860s that reshaped Europe.[32]

British takeover of Egypt, 1882

The most decisive event emerged from the Anglo-Egyptian War, which resulted in the occupation of Egypt. although the Ottoman Empire was the nominal owner, in practice Britain made all the decisions.[33] In 1914, Britain went to war with the Ottomans and ended their nominal role. Historian A. J. P. Taylor says that the seizure, which lasted seven decades, "was a great event; indeed, the only real event in international relations between the Battle of Sedan and the defeat of Russia and the Russo-Japanese war."[34] Taylor emphasizes long-term impact:

The British occupation of Egypt altered the balance of power. It not only gave the British security for their route to India; it made them masters of the Eastern Mediterranean and the Middle East; it made it unnecessary for them to stand in the front line against Russia at the Straits....And thus prepared the way for the Franco-Russian Alliance ten years later.[35]

20th century

Entry in to World War I

Main article: Ottoman entry into World War I

Germany for years had worked to develop closer ties to the Ottoman Empire. In 1914, the old Ottoman enemy Russia was at war with Germany and Austria-Hungary. Conquest of Constantinople was a main Russian war goal. The Porte was neutral at first but leaned toward Germany. The Ottoman entry into World War I began when two recently purchased ships of its navy, still manned by their German crews and commanded by their German admiral, carried out the Black Sea Raid, a surprise attack against Russian ports, on 29 October 1914. Russia replied by declaring war on 1 November 1914 and Russia's allies, Britain and France, then declared war on the Ottoman Empire on 5 November 1914.</ref>[36]

This decision ultimately led to the deaths of hundreds of thousands of Ottomans, the Armenian Genocide, the dissolution of the empire, and the abolition of the Islamic Caliphate.[37]

Armenian genocide

The Armenian Genocide was the systematic mass murder and expulsion of 1.5 million ethnic Armenians carried out in Turkey and adjoining regions by the Ottoman government between 1914 and 1923.[38][39] The starting date is conventionally held to be 24 April 1915, the day that Ottoman authorities rounded up, arrested, and deported from Constantinople (now Istanbul) to the region of Angora (Ankara), 235 to 270 Armenian intellectuals and community leaders, the majority of whom were eventually murdered.

The genocide was carried out during and after World War I and implemented in two phases—the wholesale killing of the able-bodied male population through massacre and subjection of army conscripts to forced labour, followed by the deportation of women, children, the elderly, and the infirm on death marches leading to the Syrian Desert. Driven forward by military escorts, the deportees were deprived of food and water and subjected to periodic robbery, rape, and massacre.[40] Most Armenian diaspora communities around the world came into being as a direct result of the genocide.[41]

Other ethnic groups were similarly targeted for extermination in the Assyrian genocide and the Greek genocide, and their treatment is considered by some historians to be part of the same genocidal policy.[42][43]

Raphael Lemkin was moved specifically by the annihilation of the Armenians to define systematic and premeditated exterminations within legal parameters and to coin the word genocide in 1943.[44] The Armenian Genocide is acknowledged to have been one of the first modern genocides,[45][46][47] because scholars point to the organized manner in which the killings were carried out. It is the second-most-studied case of genocide after the Holocaust.[48]

Turkey denies that the word genocide is an accurate term for these crimes, but in recent years has been faced with increasing calls to recognize them as such.[49] As of 2019, governments and parliaments of 32 countries, including the United States, Russia, and Germany, have recognized the events as a genocide.

See also

References

  1. ^ See Foundations of the Ottoman Foreign Ministry International Journal of Middle East Studies, 1974
  2. ^ a b Yurdusev et al., 2.
  3. ^ Watson, 218.
  4. ^ Yurdusev et al., Ottoman Diplomacy p. 27.
  5. ^ Yurdusev et al., 30.
  6. ^ Yurdusev et al., 39.
  7. ^ Yurdusev et al., 39–40.
  8. ^ Yurdusev et al., 41.
  9. ^ a b Watson, 217.
  10. ^ a b c d Watson, 177.
  11. ^ Yurdusev et al., 21.
  12. ^ Yurdusev et al., 22.
  13. ^ Inalcik, 36.
  14. ^ Yurdusev et al., 23.
  15. ^ Inalcik, 35.
  16. ^ Watson, 222.
  17. ^ Simon Millar, Vienna 1683: Christian Europe Repels the Ottomans (Osprey, 2008)
  18. ^ John Wolf, The Emergence of the Great Powers: 1685–1715 (1951), pp 15–53.
  19. ^ Kenneth Meyer Setton, Venice, Austria, and the Turks in the Seventeenth Century (Memoirs of the American Philosophical Society, 1991) excerpt
  20. ^ Frank E. Bailey, "The Economics of British Foreign Policy, 1825-50." Journal of Modern History 12.4 (1940): 449-484 online.
  21. ^ David Steele, "Three British Prime Ministers and the Survival of the Ottoman Empire, 1855–1902." Middle Eastern Studies 50.1 (2014): 43–60.
  22. ^ Paul Strathern, Napoleon in Egypt: The Greatest Glory (2007) online
  23. ^ W. Alison Phillips, The war of Greek independence, 1821 to 1833 (1897) online
  24. ^ J. A. R. Marriott, The Eastern Question An Historical Study In European Diplomacy (1940) pp 193–225. online
  25. ^ Harry N. Howard, "The Balkan Wars in perspective: their significance for Turkey." Balkan Studies 3.2 (1962): 267-276.
  26. ^ Caesar E. Farah, "Reaffirming Ottoman Sovereignty in Yemen, 1825-1840" International Journal of Turkish Studies (1984) 3#1 pp 101-116.
  27. ^ Caesar E. Farah (2002). The Sultan's Yemen: 19th Century Challenges to Ottoman Rule. I.B.Tauris. p. 120. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |1= (help)
  28. ^ A.J.P. Taylor, The Struggle for Mastery in Europe: 1848–1918 (1954) pp 62–82
  29. ^ A.J.P. Taylor, "The war that would not boil," History Today (1951) 1#2 pp 23–31.
  30. ^ Kingsley Martin, The triumph of Lord Palmerston: a study of public opinion in England before the Crimean War (Hutchinson, 1963). online
  31. ^ Harold Temperley, "The Treaty of Paris of 1856 and Its Execution," Journal of Modern History (1932) 4#3 pp. 387–414 in JSTOR
  32. ^ Stephen J. Lee, Aspects of European History 1789–1980 (2001) pp 67–74
  33. ^ Selim Deringil, "The Ottoman Response to the Egyptian Crisis of 1881-82" Middle Eastern Studies (1988) 24#1 pp. 3-24 online
  34. ^ He adds, "All the rest were maneuvers which left the combatants at the close of the day exactly where they had started. A.J.P. Taylor, "International Relations" in F.H. Hinsley, ed., The New Cambridge Modern History: XI: Material Progress and World-Wide Problems, 1870–98 (1962): 554.
  35. ^ Taylor, "International Relations" p 554
  36. ^ Balci, Ali, et al. "War Decision and Neoclassical Realism: The Entry of the Ottoman Empire into the First World War." War in History (2018), doi:10.1177/0968344518789707 online
  37. ^ Yiğit Akın, When the War Came Home: The Ottomans' Great War and the Devastation of an Empire. (Stanford University Press, 2018) excerpt.
  38. ^ "8 facts about the Armenian genocide 100 years ago". CNN.com. Retrieved 13 December 2015.
  39. ^ "100 Years Ago, 1.5 Million Armenians Were Systematically Killed. Today, It's Still Not A 'Genocide'". The Huffington Post. Retrieved 13 December 2015.
  40. ^ Kieser, Hans-Lukas; Schaller, Dominik J. (2002), Der Völkermord an den Armeniern und die Shoah [The Armenian genocide and the Shoah] (in German), Chronos, p. 114, ISBN 3-0340-0561-X
    Walker, Christopher J. (1980), Armenia: The Survival of A Nation, London: Croom Helm, pp. 200–03
    Bryce, Viscount James; Toynbee, Arnold (2000), Sarafian, Ara (ed.), The Treatment of Armenians in the Ottoman Empire, 1915–1916: Documents Presented to Viscount Grey of Falloden (uncensored ed.), Princeton, NJ: Gomidas, pp. 635–49, ISBN 0-9535191-5-5
  41. ^ "The Many Armenian Diasporas, Then and Now". GeoCurrents. Retrieved 13 December 2015.
  42. ^ Schaller, Dominik J; Zimmerer, Jürgen (2008). "Late Ottoman genocides: the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire and Young Turkish population and extermination policies – introduction". Journal of Genocide Research. 10 (1): 7–14. doi:10.1080/14623520801950820.
  43. ^ Jones, Adam (2010). Genocide: A Comprehensive Introduction. Taylor & Francis. pp. 171–72. ISBN 978-0-203-84696-4. A resolution was placed before the IAGS membership to recognize the Greek and Assyrian/Chaldean components of the Ottoman genocide against Christians, alongside the Armenian strand of the genocide (which the IAGS has already formally acknowledged). The result, passed emphatically in December 2007 despite not inconsiderable opposition, was a resolution which I co-drafted, reading as follows: ...
  44. ^ Totally Unofficial: The Autobiography of Raphael Lemkin. New Haven and London: Yale University Press. 2013. pp. 19–20. ISBN 9780300186963.
    The Armenian Genocide (1915–16): Overview, United States Holocaust Memorial Museum
  45. ^ "Council of Europe Parliamentary Assembly Resolution". Armenian National Institute. Retrieved 17 June 2016.
  46. ^ Ferguson, Niall (2006). The War of the World: Twentieth-Century Conflict and the Descent of the West. New York: Penguin Press. p. 177. ISBN 1-59420-100-5.
  47. ^ "A Letter from The International Association of Genocide Scholars" (PDF). Genocide Watch. 13 June 2005. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  48. ^ Rummel, RJ (1 April 1998). "The Holocaust in Comparative and Historical Perspective". IDEA – A Journal of Social Issues. 3 (2). ISSN 1523-1712.
  49. ^ "For Turkey, denying an Armenian genocide is a question of identity". america.aljazeera.com. Retrieved 13 December 2015.

Further reading

  • Anderson, M.S. The Eastern Question 1774-1923 (1966)
  • Bailey, Frank E. "The Economics of British Foreign Policy, 1825-50." Journal of Modern History 12.4 (1940): 449-484, focus on Ottomans. online
  • Bailey, Frank Edgar. British policy and the Turkish reform movement: a study in Anglo-Turkish relations, 1826-1853 (Harvard UP, 1942).
  • Bloxham, Donald. The great game of genocide: imperialism, nationalism, and the destruction of the Ottoman Armenians (Oxford UP, 2005).
  • Davison, Roderic H. Nineteenth century Ottoman diplomacy and reforms (Isis Press, 1999).
  • Finkel, Caroline. Osman’s Dream: The Story of the Ottoman Empire, 1300-1923 (Basic, 2005) excerpt.
  • Geyikdağı, Necla. "The Evolution of British Commercial Diplomacy in the Ottoman Empire." İktisat ve Sosyal Bilimlerde Güncel Araştırmalar 1.1: 9-46. online in English
  • Geyikdağı, N. Foreign Investment in the Ottoman Empire: International Trade and Relations 1854-1914 (I.B. Tauris, 2011).
  • Hale, William. Turkish foreign policy since 1774 (Routledge, 2012) pp 8-33 on Ottomans. excerpt.
  • Hitzel, Frédéric (2010). "Les ambassades occidentales à Constantinople et la diffusion d'une certaine image de l'Orient". Comptes rendus des séances de l'Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres (in French). 154 (1): 277–292.
  • Horn, David Bayne. Great Britain and Europe in the eighteenth century (1967), covers 1603 to 1702; pp 352-77.
  • Hurewitz, Jacob C. "Ottoman diplomacy and the European state system." Middle East Journal (1961) 15#2: 141-152 online.
  • Inalcik, Halil. The Ottoman Empire: The Classical Age 1300–1600. (Praeger, 1971). ISBN 1-84212-442-0.
  • Kent, Marian. "Agent of empire? The National Bank of Turkey and British foreign policy." Historical Journal 18.2 (1975): 367-389 online.
  • Kent, Marian, ed. The Great Powers and the end of the Ottoman Empire (Routledge, 2005).
  • Langer, William L. The Diplomacy of Imperialism 1890-1902 (1965).
  • Macfie, Alexander Lyon. The Eastern Question 1774-1923 (2nd ed Routledge, 2014).
  • Marriott, J. A. R. The Eastern question: an historical study in European diplomacy (1940) online.
  • Palmer, Alan. The Decline and Fall of the Ottoman Empire (1994).
  • Pamuk, Şevket. The Ottoman Empire and European Capitalism, 1820–1913: Trade, Investment and Production (Cambridge UP, 1987).
  • Quataert, Donald. The Ottoman Empire, 1700-1922 (Cambridge UP, 2000).
  • Rodogno, Davide. Against Massacre: Humanitarian Interventions in the Ottoman Empire, 1815-1914 (Princeton UP, 2012).
  • Watson, Adam. The evolution of international society: a comparative historical analysis. (Routledge, 1992). ISBN 0-415-06998-X.
  • Yurdusev, A. Nuri et al. Ottoman Diplomacy: Conventional or Unconventional?. (Palgrave Macmillan, 2004). ISBN 0-333-71364-8.

Primary sources

  • Anderson, M.S. ed. The great powers and the Near East, 1774-1923 (Edward Arnold, 1970).
  • Bourne, Kenneth, ed. The Foreign Policy of Victorian England 1830-1902 (1970); 147 primary documents, plus 194 page introduction. online free to borrow
  • Hurewitz, J. C. ed. The Middle East and North Africa in world politics: A documentary record vol 1: European expansion: 1535-1914 (1975); vol 2: A Documentary Record 1914-1956 (1956)vol 2 online


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