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'''The Mountain''' ({{lang-fr|La Montagne}}) was a [[political group]] during the [[French Revolution]]. Its members, called the '''Montagnards''' ({{IPA-fr|mɔ̃taɲaʁ|lang}}), sat on the highest benches in the [[National Assembly (French Revolution)|National Assembly]].
'''The Mountain''' ({{lang-fr|La Montagne}}) was a [[political group]] during the [[French Revolution]]. Its members, called the '''Montagnards''' ({{IPA-fr|mɔ̃taɲaʁ|lang}}), sat on the highest benches in the [[National Assembly (French Revolution)|National Assembly]].


They were the most radical group and opposed the [[Girondins]]. The term, first used during a session of the [[Legislative Assembly (France)|Legislative Assembly]], came into general use in 1793. By the summer of 1793, that pair of opposed minority groups divided the [[National Convention]]. That year, led by [[Maximilien Robespierre]], the Montagnards unleashed the [[Reign of Terror]].
They were the most radical group and opposed the [[Girondins]]. The term, first used during a session of the [[Legislative Assembly (France)|Legislative Assembly]], came into general use in 1793. By the summer of 1793, that pair of opposed minority groups divided the [[National Convention]], although a large group of deputies known as the 'Plain' or 'Marais' were uncommitted. That year, led by the Committee of Public Safety], the Montagnards unleashed a wide range of emergency wartime measures later called by opponents the [[Reign of Terror]].


The Mountain was composed mainly of members of the middle class, but represented the constituencies of Paris. As such, the Mountain was sensitive to the motivations of the city and responded strongly to demands from the working class [[sans-culottes]].<ref>Jeremy D. Popkin, ''A Short History of the French Revolution'', 6th ed. (Pearson Education, Inc. 2006), pp. 75–76.</ref> The Mountaineers had little understanding of the daily life and needs of the people in the cities and towns beyond Paris. Although they attempted some rural land reform, most of it was never enacted and they generally focused on the needs of the urban poor over that of rural France. The Mountain operated on the belief that what was best for Paris would be best for all of France.<ref>William D. Edmonds, ''"The Siege" in Jacobinism and the Revolt of Lyon'', (Clarendon Press, 1990), p. 249.</ref>
The Mountain was composed mainly of members of the middle class, but represented the constituencies of Paris and many other across the country. As such, the Mountain was sensitive to the motivations of the city and responded strongly to demands from the working class [[sans-culottes]].<ref>Jeremy D. Popkin, ''A Short History of the French Revolution'', 6th ed. (Pearson Education, Inc. 2006), pp. 75–76.</ref> The Montagnards had a close understanding of the daily life and needs of the people in the cities and towns beyond Paris. They abolished the remnants of the feudal system in July 1793 and sold off émigré property. Other policies, such as requisitioning of food supplies for the armies, were often hotly contested.


The Girondins were a moderate political faction created during the Legislative Assembly period.<ref name="Jeremy D. Popkin 2006">Jeremy D. Popkin, ''A Short History of the French Revolution'', 6th ed. (Pearson Education, Inc. 2006), pp. 50–51.</ref> They were the political opponents of the more radical representatives within the Mountain. The Girondins had wanted to avoid the execution of Louis XVI and supported a constitution which would have allowed a popular vote to overturn legislation.<ref name="Jeremy D. Popkin 2006"/> The Mountain accused the Girondins of plotting against Paris because this caveat within the proposed constitution would have allowed rural areas of France to vote against legislation that benefits Paris, the main constituency of the Mountain. However, the real discord in the Convention occurred not between the Mountain and the Gironde, but between the aggressive antics of the minority of the Mountain and the rest of the Convention.<ref>R. R. Palmer, ''Twelve Who Ruled: The Year of the Terror in the French Revolution'' with a new foreword by Isser Woloch (Princeton University Press, 2005), p. 26.</ref>
The Girondins were a moderate political faction created during the Legislative Assembly period.<ref name="Jeremy D. Popkin 2006">Jeremy D. Popkin, ''A Short History of the French Revolution'', 6th ed. (Pearson Education, Inc. 2006), pp. 50–51.</ref> They were the political opponents of the more radical representatives within the Mountain. The Girondins had wanted to avoid the execution of Louis XVI and supported measures to restrict the political role of Parisian 'sans-culottes'. .<ref name="Jeremy D. Popkin 2006"/> After the 'sans-culottes' had forced the National Convention to expel twenty prominent Girondins seen as counter-revolutionary, there were anti-Jacobin insurrections in major provincial cities, including Bordeaux, Lyon, Caen, Marseille and Toulon. Coming at a time of external military crisis and invasion, these 'federalist' revolts were ruthlessly repressed.<ref>R. R. Palmer, ''Twelve Who Ruled: The Year of the Terror in the French Revolution'' with a new foreword by Isser Woloch (Princeton University Press, 2005), p. 26.</ref>


The Mountain was not unified as a party and relied on leaders like [[Maximilien Robespierre]], [[Georges Danton]] and [[Jacques Hébert]], who themselves came to represent different factions.<ref>Jeremy D. Popkin, ''A Short History of the French Revolution: Sixth Edition'', (Pearson Education, Inc. 2006), p. 62.</ref> Hébert, a journalist, gained a following as a radical patriot Mountaineer (members who identified with him became known as the [[Hébertists]]) while Danton led a more moderate faction of the Mountain (followers came to be known as [[Georges Danton|Dantonists]]).<ref name="ReferenceA">Jeremy D. Popkin, ''A Short History of the French Revolution'', 6th ed. (Pearson Education, Inc. 2006), pp. 64–66.</ref> Regardless of the divisions, the nightly sessions of the Jacobin club, which met in the [[rue Saint-Honoré]], can be considered to be a type of [[caucus]] for the Mountain.<ref>R. R. Palmer, ''Twelve Who Ruled: The Year of the Terror in the French Revolution'' with a new foreword by Isser Woloch (Princeton University Press, 2005), p. 25.</ref> In June 1793, the Mountain successfully ousted most of the moderate Gironde members of the Convention with the assistance of radical sans-culottes.<ref>Jeremy D. Popkin, ''A Short History of the French Revolution'', 6th ed. (Pearson Education, Inc. 2006), p. 66.</ref>
The Mountain was not unified as a party and relied on leaders like [[Maximilien Robespierre]], [[Georges Danton]] and [[Jacques Hébert]], who themselves came to represent different factions.<ref>Jeremy D. Popkin, ''A Short History of the French Revolution: Sixth Edition'', (Pearson Education, Inc. 2006), p. 62.</ref> Hébert, a journalist, gained a following as a radical patriot Mountaineer (members who identified with him became known as the [[Hébertists]]) while Danton led a more moderate faction of the Mountain (followers came to be known as [[Georges Danton|Dantonists]]).<ref name="ReferenceA">Jeremy D. Popkin, ''A Short History of the French Revolution'', 6th ed. (Pearson Education, Inc. 2006), pp. 64–66.</ref> Regardless of the divisions, the nightly sessions of the Jacobin club, which met in the [[rue Saint-Honoré]], can be considered to be a type of [[caucus]] for the Mountain.<ref>R. R. Palmer, ''Twelve Who Ruled: The Year of the Terror in the French Revolution'' with a new foreword by Isser Woloch (Princeton University Press, 2005), p. 25.</ref> In June 1793, the Mountain successfully ousted most of the moderate Gironde members of the Convention with the assistance of radical sans-culottes.<ref>Jeremy D. Popkin, ''A Short History of the French Revolution'', 6th ed. (Pearson Education, Inc. 2006), p. 66.</ref>


Following their coup, the Mountain, led by Hérault-Sécuells, quickly began construction on a new constitution which was completed eight days later.<ref>R. R. Palmer, ''Twelve Who Ruled: The Year of the Terror in the French Revolution'' with a new foreword by Isser Woloch (Princeton University Press, 2005), p. 34.</ref> The [[Committee of Public Safety]] reported the constitution to the Convention on 10 June and a final draft was adopted on 24 June. The process occurred quickly because as Robespierre, a prominent member of the Mountain, announced on 10 June the "good citizens demanded a constitution" and the "Constitution will be the reply of patriotic deputies, for it is the work of the Mountain".<ref>R. R. Palmer, ''Twelve Who Ruled: The Year of the Terror in the French Revolution'' with a new foreword by Isser Woloch (Princeton University Press, 2005), p. 35.</ref> However, this constitution was never actually enacted.<ref>Jeremy D. Popkin, ''A Short History of the French Revolution'', 6th ed. (Pearson Education, Inc. 2006), p. 67.</ref> The [[French Constitution of 1793|Constitution of 1793]] was abandoned when Robespierre later granted himself and the Committee of Public Safety dictatorial powers in order to "defend the Revolution".<ref>Jeremy D. Popkin, ''A Short History of the French Revolution'', 6th ed. (Pearson Education, Inc. 2006), p. 71.</ref>
Following their coup, the Mountain, led by Hérault-Séchelles, quickly began construction on a new constitution which was completed eight days later.<ref>R. R. Palmer, ''Twelve Who Ruled: The Year of the Terror in the French Revolution'' with a new foreword by Isser Woloch (Princeton University Press, 2005), p. 34.</ref> The [[Committee of Public Safety]] reported the constitution to the Convention on 10 June and a final draft was adopted on 24 June. The process occurred quickly because as Robespierre, a prominent member of the Mountain, announced on 10 June the "good citizens demanded a constitution" and the "Constitution will be the reply of patriotic deputies, for it is the work of the Mountain".<ref>R. R. Palmer, ''Twelve Who Ruled: The Year of the Terror in the French Revolution'' with a new foreword by Isser Woloch (Princeton University Press, 2005), p. 35.</ref> However, this constitution was never actually enacted.<ref>Jeremy D. Popkin, ''A Short History of the French Revolution'', 6th ed. (Pearson Education, Inc. 2006), p. 67.</ref> The [[French Constitution of 1793|Constitution of 1793]] was abandoned when Robespierre later granted himself and the Committee of Public Safety dictatorial powers in order to "defend the Revolution".<ref>Jeremy D. Popkin, ''A Short History of the French Revolution'', 6th ed. (Pearson Education, Inc. 2006), p. 71.</ref>


== History ==
== History ==
Line 40: Line 40:


=== Policies of the Mountain ===
=== Policies of the Mountain ===
Through attempted land redistribution policies, the Mountain showed some support for the rural poor. In August 1793, Montagnard member [[Jean Jacques Régis de Cambacérès]] drafted a piece of legislation which dealt with agricultural reform; in particular, he urged "relief from rent following harvest loss, compensation for improvements and fixity of tenure".<ref name="P.M. Jones, 1991">P. M. Jones, "The 'Agrarian Law': Schemes for Land Redistribution during the French Revolution", Past & Present, no. 133 (1991), p. 112.</ref> This was in part to combat restlessness of share-croppers in the southwest. This draft never made it into law, but the drastic reforms suggest the Mountain's awareness of the need to please their base of support, both the rural and urban poor.<ref name="P.M. Jones, 1991"/>
Through attempted land redistribution policies, the Mountain showed some support for the rural poor, especially through the final abolition of seigneurial dues, the sale of émigré property and regulations allowing common land to be divided by head. In August 1793, Montagnard member [[Jean Jacques Régis de Cambacérès]] drafted a piece of legislation which dealt with agricultural reform; in particular, he urged "relief from rent following harvest loss, compensation for improvements and fixity of tenure".<ref name="P.M. Jones, 1991">P. M. Jones, "The 'Agrarian Law': Schemes for Land Redistribution during the French Revolution", Past & Present, no. 133 (1991), p. 112.</ref> This was in part to combat restlessness of share-croppers in the southwest. This draft never made it into law, but the drastic reforms suggest the Mountain's awareness of the need to please their base of support, both the rural and urban poor.<ref name="P.M. Jones, 1991"/>


[[File:Shot.jpg|thumb|The arrest of [[Maximilien Robespierre]] and his followers showing at the centre of the image gendarme [[Charles-André Merda|Merda]] firing at Robespierre (colour engraving by [[Jean-Joseph-François Tassaert]] after the painting by [[Fulchran-Jean Harriet]], [[Carnavalet Museum]])]]
[[File:Shot.jpg|thumb|The arrest of [[Maximilien Robespierre]] and his followers showing at the centre of the image gendarme [[Charles-André Merda|Merda]] firing at Robespierre (colour engraving by [[Jean-Joseph-François Tassaert]] after the painting by [[Fulchran-Jean Harriet]], [[Carnavalet Museum]])]]
Line 48: Line 48:


=== Decline and fall ===
=== Decline and fall ===
The fall and exclusion of the Montagnards from the National Convention began with the collapse of the Revolution's radical phase and the death of Robespierre on 10 Thermidor (28 July 1794). While the Montagnards celebrated unity, there was growing heterogeneity within the group as Robespierre and his Committee of Public Safety overextended themselves with their tight control over the military and their extreme opposition to corruption in the government.<ref>Peter McPhee, ''Robespierre: A Revolutionary Life'' (Yale University Press, 2012), p. 271.</ref> Their overextension drew the ire of other revolutionary leaders and a number of plots coalesced on 9 Thermidor ([[Thermidorian Reaction]]) when collaborators with the more moderate group the [[Dantonists]] acted in response to fears that Robespierre planned to execute them.<ref name=Popkin/>
Ultimately the Mountain was a victim of its own military successes in defeating the Coalition armies by June 1794 and crushing arming counter-revolution. By the summer of 1794 there was increasing dissatisfaction with continued repression, particularly following the Law of 22 Prairial. The fall of the Montagnards from power within the National Convention began with the collapse of the Revolution's radical phase and the death of Robespierre on 10 Thermidor (28 July 1794). While the Montagnards celebrated unity, there was growing heterogeneity within the group as Robespierre and his Committee of Public Safety overextended themselves with their tight control over the military and their extreme opposition to corruption in the government.<ref>Peter McPhee, ''Robespierre: A Revolutionary Life'' (Yale University Press, 2012), p. 271.</ref> Their overextension drew the ire of other revolutionary leaders and a number of plots coalesced on 9 Thermidor ([[Thermidorian Reaction]]) when collaborators with the more moderate group the [[Dantonists]] acted in response to fears that Robespierre planned to execute them.<ref name=Popkin/>


The purge of Robespierre was strongly similar to previous measures employed by the Montagnards to expel disagreeable factions, such as the Girondins. However, as Robespierre was widely considered the heart of the Montagnards, his death symbolized their collapse. Few desired to take on the name of Montagnards afterwards, leaving around only about 100 men.<ref name=Franc/> Finally, at the end of 1794 the Mountain largely devolved into a group called The Crest ({{lang-fr|crête}}), which lacked any real power.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/390416/Montagnard|title=Montagnard|work=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref>
The purge of Robespierre was strongly similar to previous measures employed by the Montagnards to expel disagreeable factions, such as the Girondins. However, as Robespierre was widely considered the heart of the Montagnards, his death symbolized their collapse. Few desired to take on the name of Montagnards afterwards, leaving around only about 100 men.<ref name=Franc/> Finally, at the end of 1794 the Mountain largely devolved into a group called The Crest ({{lang-fr|crête}}), which lacked any real power.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/390416/Montagnard|title=Montagnard|work=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref>

Revision as of 00:16, 16 March 2020

This article is about the historical political group also known as the Montagnards. For other uses, see The Mountain (disambiguation) and Montagnard (disambiguation).
The Mountain
La Montagne
Leaders • Georges Danton
 • Maximilien Robespierre
 • Paul Barras
 • Bertrand Barère
Founded1792; 232 years ago (1792)
Dissolved1799; 225 years ago (1799)
HeadquartersTuileries Palace, Paris
Newspaper • L'Ami du peuple
 • Le Vieux Cordelier
 • Le Père Duchesne
Political club(s)Jacobin Club
Cordeliers Club
IdeologyCentralisation
Dirigism[1][2]
Jacobinism
Radicalism[3]
Political positionLeft-wing[4][5]
Colors  Red

The Mountain (French: La Montagne) was a political group during the French Revolution. Its members, called the Montagnards (French: [mɔ̃taɲaʁ]), sat on the highest benches in the National Assembly.

They were the most radical group and opposed the Girondins. The term, first used during a session of the Legislative Assembly, came into general use in 1793. By the summer of 1793, that pair of opposed minority groups divided the National Convention, although a large group of deputies known as the 'Plain' or 'Marais' were uncommitted. That year, led by the Committee of Public Safety], the Montagnards unleashed a wide range of emergency wartime measures later called by opponents the Reign of Terror.

The Mountain was composed mainly of members of the middle class, but represented the constituencies of Paris and many other across the country. As such, the Mountain was sensitive to the motivations of the city and responded strongly to demands from the working class sans-culottes.[6] The Montagnards had a close understanding of the daily life and needs of the people in the cities and towns beyond Paris. They abolished the remnants of the feudal system in July 1793 and sold off émigré property. Other policies, such as requisitioning of food supplies for the armies, were often hotly contested.

The Girondins were a moderate political faction created during the Legislative Assembly period.[7] They were the political opponents of the more radical representatives within the Mountain. The Girondins had wanted to avoid the execution of Louis XVI and supported measures to restrict the political role of Parisian 'sans-culottes'. .[7] After the 'sans-culottes' had forced the National Convention to expel twenty prominent Girondins seen as counter-revolutionary, there were anti-Jacobin insurrections in major provincial cities, including Bordeaux, Lyon, Caen, Marseille and Toulon. Coming at a time of external military crisis and invasion, these 'federalist' revolts were ruthlessly repressed.[8]

The Mountain was not unified as a party and relied on leaders like Maximilien Robespierre, Georges Danton and Jacques Hébert, who themselves came to represent different factions.[9] Hébert, a journalist, gained a following as a radical patriot Mountaineer (members who identified with him became known as the Hébertists) while Danton led a more moderate faction of the Mountain (followers came to be known as Dantonists).[10] Regardless of the divisions, the nightly sessions of the Jacobin club, which met in the rue Saint-Honoré, can be considered to be a type of caucus for the Mountain.[11] In June 1793, the Mountain successfully ousted most of the moderate Gironde members of the Convention with the assistance of radical sans-culottes.[12]

Following their coup, the Mountain, led by Hérault-Séchelles, quickly began construction on a new constitution which was completed eight days later.[13] The Committee of Public Safety reported the constitution to the Convention on 10 June and a final draft was adopted on 24 June. The process occurred quickly because as Robespierre, a prominent member of the Mountain, announced on 10 June the "good citizens demanded a constitution" and the "Constitution will be the reply of patriotic deputies, for it is the work of the Mountain".[14] However, this constitution was never actually enacted.[15] The Constitution of 1793 was abandoned when Robespierre later granted himself and the Committee of Public Safety dictatorial powers in order to "defend the Revolution".[16]

History

Origins

It is difficult to pinpoint the conception of the Montagnard group because the lines which defined it were themselves quite nebulous early on. Originally, members of The Mountain were the men who sat in the highest rows of the Jacobin Clubs, loosely organized political debate clubs open to the public.[17] Though members of the Montagnards were known for their commitment to radical political resolutions prior to 1793, the contours of political groups presented an ever-evolving reality that shifted in response to events. Would-be prominent Montagnard leaders like Jean-Baptiste Robert Lindet and Jean Bon Saint-André were tempted by early Girondin proposals and soon many moderates—even anti-radicals—felt the need to push for radical endeavors in light of threats both within and without the country.[18] It was only after the trial of Louis XVI in December 1792, which united the Montagnards on a position of regicide, that the ideals and power of the group fully consolidated.

Rise and Terror

The rise of Montagnards corresponds to the fall of the Girondins. The Girondins hesitated on the correct course of action to take with Louis XVI after his attempt to flee France on 20 June 1791. Some of the Girondins believed they could use the king as figurehead. While the Girondins hesitated, the Montagnards took a united stand during the trial in December 1792–January 1793 and favored the king's execution.[19]

Riding on this victory, the Montagnards then sought to discredit the Girondins. They used tactics previously employed by the Girondins to denounce them as liars and enemies of the Revolution.[20] They also formed a legislative committee in which Nicolas Hentz proposed a limitation of inheritances, gaining more support for the Montagnards. Girondin members were subsequently banned from the Jacobin club and excluded from the National Convention on 31 May – 2 June 1793. Any attempted resistance was crushed. Maximilien Robespierre then continued to consolidate his power over the Montagnards with the use of the Committee of Public Safety.[21]

Policies of the Mountain

Through attempted land redistribution policies, the Mountain showed some support for the rural poor, especially through the final abolition of seigneurial dues, the sale of émigré property and regulations allowing common land to be divided by head. In August 1793, Montagnard member Jean Jacques Régis de Cambacérès drafted a piece of legislation which dealt with agricultural reform; in particular, he urged "relief from rent following harvest loss, compensation for improvements and fixity of tenure".[22] This was in part to combat restlessness of share-croppers in the southwest. This draft never made it into law, but the drastic reforms suggest the Mountain's awareness of the need to please their base of support, both the rural and urban poor.[22]

The arrest of Maximilien Robespierre and his followers showing at the centre of the image gendarme Merda firing at Robespierre (colour engraving by Jean-Joseph-François Tassaert after the painting by Fulchran-Jean Harriet, Carnavalet Museum)

Other policies aimed at supporting the poor included price controls enacted by the Mountain in 1793. This law, called the General Maximum, was supported by a group of agitators within the Mountain known as the Enragés. It fixed prices and wages throughout France.[10] At the same time, bread prices were rising as the commodity became scarce, and in an initiative spearheaded by Collot d’Herbois and Billaud-Varenne, a law was enacted in July 1793 that forbade the hoarding of "daily necessities".[23] The hoarding of grain became a crime punishable by death.[24]

Other economic policies enacted by the Mountain included an embargo on the export of French goods. As a result of this embargo, France was essentially unable to trade with foreign markets and the import of goods effectively ended.[25] In theory, this protected French markets from foreign goods and required French people to support French goods. In addition to the embargo against foreign goods, Act 1651, passed by the Mountain in October 1793, further isolated France from the rest of Europe by forbidding any foreign vessels from trading along the French coast.[26]

Decline and fall

Ultimately the Mountain was a victim of its own military successes in defeating the Coalition armies by June 1794 and crushing arming counter-revolution. By the summer of 1794 there was increasing dissatisfaction with continued repression, particularly following the Law of 22 Prairial. The fall of the Montagnards from power within the National Convention began with the collapse of the Revolution's radical phase and the death of Robespierre on 10 Thermidor (28 July 1794). While the Montagnards celebrated unity, there was growing heterogeneity within the group as Robespierre and his Committee of Public Safety overextended themselves with their tight control over the military and their extreme opposition to corruption in the government.[27] Their overextension drew the ire of other revolutionary leaders and a number of plots coalesced on 9 Thermidor (Thermidorian Reaction) when collaborators with the more moderate group the Dantonists acted in response to fears that Robespierre planned to execute them.[19]

The purge of Robespierre was strongly similar to previous measures employed by the Montagnards to expel disagreeable factions, such as the Girondins. However, as Robespierre was widely considered the heart of the Montagnards, his death symbolized their collapse. Few desired to take on the name of Montagnards afterwards, leaving around only about 100 men.[18] Finally, at the end of 1794 the Mountain largely devolved into a group called The Crest (French: crête), which lacked any real power.[28]

Factions and prominent members

The Mountain was born in 1792, with the merger of two prominent left-wing clubs: the Jacobins and Cordeliers. The Jacobins were initially moderate republicans and the Cordeliers were radical populist. In late 1792, Danton and his supporters wanted a reconciliation with the Girondins, which caused a break with Robespierre. After the trial of Girondins in 1793, Danton became strongly moderate while Robespierre continued his authoritarian policies.

The moderates of Danton were also rival to the followers of Jacques Hébert who wanted the persecution of all non-Montagnards and the dechristianisation of France. When Robespierre eliminated first the Hébertists (March 1794) and then the Dantonistes (April 1794), his group ruled The Mountain. This was until the Thermidorian Reaction, when several conspirators supported by The Plain instituted a coup d'état. They executed Robespierre and his supporters and split from The Mountain to form the Thermidorian Left. The Montagnards that survived were arrested, executed or deported. By 1795 the Mountain had effectively been obliterated.

Electoral results

Election year No. of
overall votes 		% of
overall vote 		No. of
overall seats won 		+/– Leader
National Convention
1792 907,200 (2nd) 26.7
200 / 749
Increase 64
Maximilien Robespierre
Legislative Body
1795 Did not participate Did not participate
64 / 750
Decrease 136
1798 Unknown (1st) 70.7
175 / 750
Increase 111
1799 Unknown (1st) Unknown
240 / 500
Increase 65

References

  1. ^ Howard G. Brown (3 August 1995). War, Revolution, and the Bureaucratic State: Politics and Army Administration in France. Clarendon Press. p. 370.
  2. ^ Edward Berenson (1984). Populist Religion and Left-Wing Politics in France. Princeton University Press. p. 308.
  3. ^ "Montagnard". Encyclopædia Britannica.
  4. ^ Jennifer Llewellyn; Steve Thompson (2015). "The Girondins and Montagnards". Alpha History.
  5. ^ Gregory Fremont-Barnes (2007). Encyclopedia of the Age of Political Revolutions and New Ideologies. Greenwood Press. p. 867.
  6. ^ Jeremy D. Popkin, A Short History of the French Revolution, 6th ed. (Pearson Education, Inc. 2006), pp. 75–76.
  7. ^ a b Jeremy D. Popkin, A Short History of the French Revolution, 6th ed. (Pearson Education, Inc. 2006), pp. 50–51.
  8. ^ R. R. Palmer, Twelve Who Ruled: The Year of the Terror in the French Revolution with a new foreword by Isser Woloch (Princeton University Press, 2005), p. 26.
  9. ^ Jeremy D. Popkin, A Short History of the French Revolution: Sixth Edition, (Pearson Education, Inc. 2006), p. 62.
  10. ^ a b Jeremy D. Popkin, A Short History of the French Revolution, 6th ed. (Pearson Education, Inc. 2006), pp. 64–66.
  11. ^ R. R. Palmer, Twelve Who Ruled: The Year of the Terror in the French Revolution with a new foreword by Isser Woloch (Princeton University Press, 2005), p. 25.
  12. ^ Jeremy D. Popkin, A Short History of the French Revolution, 6th ed. (Pearson Education, Inc. 2006), p. 66.
  13. ^ R. R. Palmer, Twelve Who Ruled: The Year of the Terror in the French Revolution with a new foreword by Isser Woloch (Princeton University Press, 2005), p. 34.
  14. ^ R. R. Palmer, Twelve Who Ruled: The Year of the Terror in the French Revolution with a new foreword by Isser Woloch (Princeton University Press, 2005), p. 35.
  15. ^ Jeremy D. Popkin, A Short History of the French Revolution, 6th ed. (Pearson Education, Inc. 2006), p. 67.
  16. ^ Jeremy D. Popkin, A Short History of the French Revolution, 6th ed. (Pearson Education, Inc. 2006), p. 71.
  17. ^ "Definition of 'mountain' - Collins English Dictionary". Collins English Dictionary.
  18. ^ a b François Furet and Mona Ozouf, A Critical Dictionary of the French Revolution (Belknap Press, 1989), pp. 380–390.
  19. ^ a b Jeremy D. Popkin, A Short History of the French Revolution, 5th ed. (Pearson, 2009), pp. 72–77.
  20. ^ Marisa Linton, Choosing Terror: Virtue, Friendship, and Authenticity in the French Revolution (Oxford University Press, 2013), pp. 174–175.
  21. ^ Robert J. Alderson, This Bright Era of Happy Revolutions: French Consul Michel-Ange-Bernard Mangourit and International Republicanism in Charleston, 1792-1794 (University of South Carolina Press, 2008), pp. 9–10.
  22. ^ a b P. M. Jones, "The 'Agrarian Law': Schemes for Land Redistribution during the French Revolution", Past & Present, no. 133 (1991), p. 112.
  23. ^ Jeremy D. Popkin, A Short History of the French Revolution, 6th ed. (Pearson Education, Inc. 2006), p. 68.
  24. ^ R. R. Palmer, Twelve Who Ruled: The Year of the Terror in the French Revolution with a new foreword by Isser Woloch (Princeton University Press), 2005. p. 226.
  25. ^ R. R. Palmer, Twelve Who Ruled: The Year of the Terror in the French Revolution with a new foreword by Isser Woloch (Princeton University Press, 2005), 226.
  26. ^ R. R. Palmer, Twelve Who Ruled: The Year of the Terror in the French Revolution with a new foreword by Isser Woloch (Princeton University Press, 2005), p. 227.
  27. ^ Peter McPhee, Robespierre: A Revolutionary Life (Yale University Press, 2012), p. 271.
  28. ^ "Montagnard". Encyclopædia Britannica.

Bibliography

  • François Furet and Mona Ozouf. A Critical Dictionary of the French Revolution. (Belknap Press, 1989).
  • Jeremy D. Popkin, A Short History of the French Revolution, 5th ed. (Pearson, 2009).
  • Marisa Linton, Choosing Terror: Virtue, Friendship, and Authenticity in the French Revolution. (Oxford University Press, 2013).
  • Morris Slavin. The Making of an Insurrection: Parisian Sections and the Gironde. (Harvard University Press, 1986).
  • Peter Kropotkin, Trans. N. F. Dryhurst The Great French Revolution, 1789–1793. (New York: Vanguard Printings, 1927).
  • Peter McPhee, Robespierre: A Revolutionary Life. (Yale University Press, 2012).
  • Robert J. Alderson, This Bright Era of Happy Revolutions: French Consul Michel-Ange-Bernard Mangourit and International Republicanism in Charleston, 1792-1794. (University of South Carolina Press, 2008).
  • "Mountain (the Mountain)". Collins English Dictionary Online. Retrieved 24 May 2014.
  • "Montagnard (French history)". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Retrieved 8 May 2014.

Further reading

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