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In a landmark paper in 7 June 1958, published by Donald, McVicar and Brown discussed the development of the A-mode scanner and decisions that led up to the B-mode scanner.<ref name="pap">{{cite journal |last1=Donald |first1=Ian |last2=Macvicar |first2=J |last3=Brown |first3=T.G |title=INVESTIGATION OF ABDOMINAL MASSES BY PULSED ULTRASOUND |journal=The Lancet |date=June 1958 |volume=271 |issue=7032 |pages=1188–1195 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(58)91905-6}}</ref> Donald and McVicar also described the first successful diagnosis using obstetric ultrasound with the B-mode machine. This occurred when a women patient was diagnosed with terminal cancer of the stomach using traditional clinical methods, palpation and by X-ray.<ref name="thesis"/> Donald diagnosed the women with an [[Ovarian cyst]] and when the women was sent for a [[Laparotomy]], a large cyst was discovered and removed, vindicating, Donald diagnosis.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Donald |first1=Ian |last2=Macvicar |first2=J |last3=Brown |first3=T.G |title=Investigation Of Abdominal Masses By Pulsed Ultrasound |journal=The Lancet |date=June 1958 |volume=271 |issue=7032 |pages=1188–1195 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(58)91905-6}}</ref> The paper highlighted the importance of the instant feedback that was available from the operating room to improve the quality of the image.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Dastur |first1=Adi E |last2=Tank |first2=PD |title=Ian Donald : the pioneer of ultrasound in medicine |journal=J Obstet Gynecol India |date=December 2008 |volume=8 |issue=6 |url=http://medind.nic.in/jaq/t08/i6/jaqt08i6p482.pdf}}</ref> In the paper Donald referenced the work of ultrasound pioneers, [[Douglass Howry]] in Denver, United States and [[Yoshimitsu Kikuchi]] in Japan in the early 1950's, alongside the work of [[John J. Wild]] and [[John M Reid]].<ref name="pap"/> Also described in the paper was a description of testing of ultrasound on the brains of kittens to determine if there was any obvious changes in tissue structure. There was none.<ref name="thesis"/> The teams enthusiasm in the success of the B-mode and the publication of the paper resulted in a change in attitudes in the medical community and more confirmed that medical diagnosis could me made.<ref name="thesis"/>
In a landmark paper in 7 June 1958, published by Donald, McVicar and Brown discussed the development of the A-mode scanner and decisions that led up to the B-mode scanner.<ref name="pap">{{cite journal |last1=Donald |first1=Ian |last2=Macvicar |first2=J |last3=Brown |first3=T.G |title=INVESTIGATION OF ABDOMINAL MASSES BY PULSED ULTRASOUND |journal=The Lancet |date=June 1958 |volume=271 |issue=7032 |pages=1188–1195 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(58)91905-6}}</ref> Donald and McVicar also described the first successful diagnosis using obstetric ultrasound with the B-mode machine. This occurred when a women patient was diagnosed with terminal cancer of the stomach using traditional clinical methods, palpation and by X-ray.<ref name="thesis"/> Donald diagnosed the women with an [[Ovarian cyst]] and when the women was sent for a [[Laparotomy]], a large cyst was discovered and removed, vindicating, Donald diagnosis.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Donald |first1=Ian |last2=Macvicar |first2=J |last3=Brown |first3=T.G |title=Investigation Of Abdominal Masses By Pulsed Ultrasound |journal=The Lancet |date=June 1958 |volume=271 |issue=7032 |pages=1188–1195 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(58)91905-6}}</ref> The paper highlighted the importance of the instant feedback that was available from the operating room to improve the quality of the image.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Dastur |first1=Adi E |last2=Tank |first2=PD |title=Ian Donald : the pioneer of ultrasound in medicine |journal=J Obstet Gynecol India |date=December 2008 |volume=8 |issue=6 |url=http://medind.nic.in/jaq/t08/i6/jaqt08i6p482.pdf}}</ref> In the paper Donald referenced the work of ultrasound pioneers, [[Douglass Howry]] in Denver, United States and [[Yoshimitsu Kikuchi]] in Japan in the early 1950's, alongside the work of [[John J. Wild]] and [[John M Reid]].<ref name="pap"/> Also described in the paper was a description of testing of ultrasound on the brains of kittens to determine if there was any obvious changes in tissue structure. There was none.<ref name="thesis"/> The teams enthusiasm in the success of the B-mode and the publication of the paper resulted in a change in attitudes in the medical community and more confirmed that medical diagnosis could me made.<ref name="thesis"/>


==Queen Mothers Hospital==
==Diasonograph==

{{Empty section|date=November 2019}}


==Health==
==Health==

Revision as of 21:31, 28 November 2019

For the footballer, see Ian Donald (footballer).

Professor Sir
Ian Donald
Portrait of Ian Donald
Born(1910-12-27)27 December 1910
Died19 June 1987(1987-06-19) (aged 76)
Resting placeSt Peters, Paglesham, Essex[1]
NationalityEnglish, British
EducationFettes College, University of Cape Town, University of London, University of Glasgow
Known forDeveloping obstetric ultrasound
AwardsCBE
Scientific career
FieldsObstetrics and Gynaecology
InstitutionsSt Thomas's Hospital Medical School, Royal Free Hospital, Western Infirmary

Ian Donald CBE FRFPSGlas FRCOG FRCP (27 December 1910 in Liskeard – 19 June 1987) was an English physician and was most notable for pioneering the diagnostic use of ultrasound in obstetrics enabling the visual discovery of abnormalities in pregnancy.[2] Donald was Regius Professor of Obstetrics and Gynaecology at the University of Glasgow.[3] Donald's work was characterised by a series of remarkable collaborations between clinicians and engineers that strove to build instruments to enable examination of the unborn[4] and that eventually enabled him to build the world's first obstetric ultrasound machine, the Diasonograph in 1963.[5]

Life

Donald was born to John Donald and Helen née Barron Wilson in 1910.[2] His father was a general practitioner who came from a paisley medical family.[6] His grandfather was also a GP. His mother was a concert pianist. Donald was the eldest of four children and his siblings were called Margaret, Alison, and Malcolm.[7] His sister Alison Munro would later become a leading headmistress.[8]

Donald took his early education at the Warriston School preparatory school in Moffat and then his secondary education was completed at Fettes College, Edinburgh.[2] However, Donald never completed his education in Scotland as the family decided to move to South Africa due to his father poor health.[9] Donald continued his secondary education at Diocesan College in Rondebosch where he studied the classics as well as music, philosophy, and languages.[7] In 1927 Donald's mother and two of his siblings contracted diphtheria and his mother died of a myocardial infarction.[7] Three months later Donald's father died. Maud Grant the housekeeper with an trust fund was left to care for the children.[7] Also in the same year, Donald achieved a Bachelor of Arts (BA) in arts and music at the University of Cape Town graduated with a First-class honours.[7] Achieving a BA is considered a traditional route to start medical school.[2]

In 1930 the family moved back to London and Donald matriculated at the University of London to study medicine at the St Thomas's Hospital Medical School.[7] In 1937 Donald achieved a Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery at St Thomas's becoming the third generation of doctors in Donald's family.[7]

At the end of his graduate education Donald married Alix Mathilde de Chazal Richards [7] a farmers daughter from the Orange Free State.[10] When Donald passed away quietly on 19 June 1987 he was survived by his wife, his four daughters and thirteen grandchildren.[1] He was buried in the churchyard at St Peters Church, in Paglesham, Essex.[1]

Career

Donald started his postgraduate medical training at the end of the 1930s with plan to specialise in Obstetrics with a position in Obstetrics and Gynaecology at St Thomas's and in 1939 he started his residency.[7]

Donald's medical career was interrupted by the arrival of the World War II and on May 1942 he was drafted into the Royal Air Force as a medical officer to do his bit.[3] He was so successful in the role that he was mentioned in dispatches[3] for bravery after he pulled several airmen from an bomber that had crashed and had set on fire[2] while the bombs were still in the airframe.[11] In 1946 he was awarded a MBE for bravery.[3] During his time with the RAF, Donald became aware of a variety of techniques involving Radar and Sonar.[11]

In 1946 Donald completed his war service and returned to work at St Thomas's.[2] In 1949 he was appointed as a tutor in the department of obstetrics and gynaecology. By 1949 the National Health Service was in operation for three years and instead of the continual search for money for patient care, money now came from government taxes, so the hospitals role changed from a needs based approach to a focus on research. Specifically each doctor now had to conduct a research project as part of their remit.[7]

Negative-pressure respirator

In partnership with Maureen Young a specialist in perinatal physiology, Donald conducted a study of respiratory disorders in infants.[7] Donald's study included an examination of available medical respirators and he wasn't satisfied with the design and efficiency of operation of the current models.[7] Donald had an interest in mechanical and technological devices from childhood, so he decided to build a new respirator.[12] By 1952 Donald and Young had built a new medical negative-pressure respirator that they demoed at the meeting of the Physiological Society in a room at the Royal Free Hospital.[13]

Trip Spirometer

Later in 1952 Donald resigned his role at St Thomas's to take up a position as a reader at the Institute of Obstetrics and Gynecology at Royal Postgraduate Medical School located in Hammersmith Hospital.[14] At the medical school Donald continued his research into neonatal breathing disorders. Donald worked to improve the Servo patient-cycled respirator as the device that Donald and Young had built.[14] Later working with Josephine Lord, a registrar, Donald built a new piece of equipment called the Trip Spirometer later called the Spirometer and whose purpose was to measure the respiratory efficiency of a neonate.[14] As well as being a diagnostic device, Donald used to device to make a quantitative determination of normal respiration with the goal of determining the physiology and pathology of neonatal pulmonary disease.[14]

Puffer

In 1953 Donald published a review of the best practice in neonatal resuscitation of the newborn.[15] While at the school, Donald worked on a third device, a positive-pressure respirator. Donald found that the negative-pressure device he had built with Young was not ideal as it was complicated to setup and difficult to use, requiring more than one person to operate.[14] Indeed, the Servo respirator seemed to be ideally suited to long term treatment of babies with breathing difficulties.[14] His rationale for creating a new device was based on the idea that respirator was need that could be used with a mask applied to a child in a cot or incubator.[14] He built a positive-pressure respirator that was later known in Hammersmith Hospital as the Puffer.[16] The Puffer device sent a stream of oxygen mixture to the babies face and the device could be applied to an ailing baby in under a minute.[14] After treating several babies, colleagues requested that he convert the device to treat adults which he did with successful outcomes. This work came to the notice British Oxygen Company who wanted to commercially develop the positive-pressure respirator.[14]

In May 1954, Donald delivered the Blair-Bell Lecture at the Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists.[7] He spoke about Atelectasis Neonatorum and how his respirator could improve the management of the condition.[7] In the same period he met the biologist, electrical engineer and inventor John J. Wild in London. Wild had discussed the use of Ultrasound with him. Wild had used pulse-echo ultrasound to visualize abnormal tissue in the human breast.[7] In September 1954 he was appointed by Hector Hetherington to Regius Professor of Midwifery.[1] Hetherington had to confirm the position with the Secretary of State for Scotland as it was a government appointment and Donald was proud of his commission that was signed personally by the Queen. Although Donald was impressed by Hetherington, Donald made it a condition of his employment that Hetherington had to promise to build a new maternity hospital in Glasgow, which he did.[17]

Obstetric Ultrasound

The Diasonograph, the first ever ultrasound scanner for use in obstetrics

Whilst Professor of Regius Midwifery at Glasgow University, he first explored the use of obstetric ultrasound in the 1950s and through collaboration with John MacVicar, a registrar and obstetrician in the Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology at the Western Infirmary and Tom Brown an industrial engineer who worked for Kelvin & Hughes Scientific Instrument Company, developed the first contact compound sector scanner[2] and an article in The Lancet called Investigation of Abdominal Masses by Pulsed Ultrasound[18] The article contained the first ultrasound image of a fetus ever published.[19]

The development of Donald's interest in ultrasound started when one of his patients introduced her husband to Donald. The patients husband was the director of the boiler fabrication company Babcock and Wilcox and he was offered a tour of the plant to Donald who accepted.[7] Babcock and Wilcox in Renfrew was a large user of industrial ultrasound that was used to check for crack and flaws in welds. Donald's purpose in making the visit to Renfrew on 21 July 1955[20] was to determine if the industrial detecting equipment could be used to differentiate, types of tissue.[12] Donald arrived at the plant with a number of fibroids and a large ovariancyst taken from gynaecology patients. When Donald came across Bernard Donnelly, an employee in the research department of the boilermaker, Donald asked him to demonstrate the devices use by taking an ultrasound image of the bone of his thumb.[7] Donald experimented with the tissue samples along with a steak the company had provided for a control[12] and thereby confirmed the fact that ultrasound could be used to scan biological material. The results surprised him. He stated:

All I wanted to know, quite simply, was whether these various masses differed in their ultrasonic echo characteristics. The results were beyond my wildest dreams and even with the primitive apparatus of those days clearly showed that a cyst produced echoes only at depth from the near and far walls, whereas a solid tumour progressively attenuated echoes at increasing depths of penetration.[20]

When he returned to hospital, Donald's goal was to find an ultrasound machine that he could continue to experiment with. He obtained a Kelvin Hughes Mark lIb supersonic flaw detector from William Valentine Mayneord at the Royal Cancer Hospital.[20] While Mayneord had been experimenting with the machine, trying to image the brain, he had been unsuccessful in his efforts, Donald hoped he could replicate and improve upon his previous success.[12] However, when he found that when using the machine it could not produce echoes from less than 8 cm from the face of the transducer, making it almost useless for obstetric diagnostics.[12] Donald experimented with balloons and condoms filled with water, to use up the 8 cm gap with little success.[20] At the time Donald was being assisted by John Lenihan, a Professor of Clinical Physics, who was helping him to form image but the Mark IIb was insufficient for the task[12] and the images produced were of very poor quality.[2]

Meeting Tom Brown

It was in late 1956 when Tom Brown, was a research engineer with Kelvin & Hughes became involved. Brown although relatively young at twenty-three, had previously worked on an automatic flaw detector for testing of industrial products.[12] It was while working in the Western Infirmary installing a bulb in a theatre that Brown found out that Donald was using the flaw detector.[21] Brown immediately looked up Donald in the Infirmary directory, phoned him and arranged a meeting.[21] When they met, Brown noticed that the Mark lIb wasn't manufactured by Kelvin & Hughes but instead had been manufactured under contract. He also noticed that the machine had been converted from using a double probe, one to produce pulses and one to receive the pulses to a single probe.[21] Not wanting to insult Donald by explaining why the machine was not working correctly, Brown offered to try and source another machine from somewhere.[21] Brown phoned Alex Rankin, the man who collaborated with Brown on the automatic flaw detector for help[21] Rankin offered to gift the latest Mk IV Flaw Detector which was subsequently forwarded to Glasgow Central station from the Barkingside Labs location of Kelvin & Hughes, for delivery to Brown.[21]

An A-mode scan created by Ian Donald in 1956. Note the large non-reflective space between two echoes which marks the presence of a large ovarian cyst

The new machine was considerably improved on the older machine with the difference being described as Chalk and cheese by Donald. It was a double transducer probe machine.[21] At the same time Brown was able to scrounge a 'Cossor' oscilloscope camera which enabled images to be recorded on 35mm film.[21] For Donald the camera was particularly significant as it enabled a record to be kept, an archive of images to created and they could be printed in published works. Donald set about establishing a framework of use for the device, how it could be used, what the information on the screen meant.[12]

In 1956 the obstetrician John MacVicar was appointed as a registrar at the Western Infirmary and joined the team.[22] He would later become the Foundation Professor of Obstetrics and Gynaecology at the University of Leicester.[22] By 1956 Donald and Brown had built up considerable experience of using the machine and had scanned 250 patients. The images produced by the device were still of poor quality and many still felt there was no future in the new machine.[2] Their interest in the machine was misunderstood by both the obstetrics and gynaecologists. What amused them was while they could use the old and well understood technique of Abdominal palpation to differentiate masses, Donald was using machinery to achieve the same result.[12]

Donald and MacVicar was pleased with the results from the machine and were trying to understand how it could be used for diagnosis but recognised that single dimension a-mode scanning was limited.[23] For Brown who was looking at the problem as an engineer in a clinical environment, he felt that the A-scope presentation was incompatible with the nature of the problem.[22] Brown however thought the image displayed did not correspond closely enough to the condition to enable a correct diagnosis.[22] He believed the too much information was being returned in the image. The problem for him was that there was myriad number of different echoes that were returned based on the sheer number of body structures. Even the patient breathing or moving on the table effected the image. Brown saw this as a problem and he planned to built a scanner that create an image that would be more useful for gynaecological diagnosis.[12]

Contact B-mode scanner

The solution proposed by Tom was to plot the position of the probes echo's and create a two-dimensional picture[22] This type of device was known as a B-mode device. Unlike the A-mode device which used a single or double transducer and the function of depth to obtain a reading, the B-mode devices uses a linear array of transducers that simultaneously scans a plane through the body that can be viewed as a two-dimensional image on screen.[24] Donald and Brown set out to create such a device.[24]

In 1956, to start the process of building the new scanner, Donald agreed to approach Kelvin and Hughes, now part of Smiths Industries and sent a letter to Ted Smith, a London-based salesman of the company.[12] At the same time, Brown also approached deputy chairman Bill Slater who sent Brown to see Bill Halliday, the company's chief research scientist for an opinion on building the machine.[25] After Brown delivered his spiel to Halliday it was several months before Brown received a reply in the form of an memo which stated that £500 had been allocated by Smiths for the development and that Brown was able to spend half a day per week working with Donald.[12]

The new B-mode scanner was also known by the name Bed-Table Scanner and was built out of an amalgamation of medical and industrial parts. Brown managed to scrounge an older Mark IV flaw detector in Glasgow along with a 6-inch electrostatically-deflected Cathode-ray tube taken from the company stores in Glasgow. From the companies Barkingside R&D department, Brown found an experimental weld-testing machine. Both these machines were cannibalised for parts. To measure the position of the transducer, Brown selected an 'X-Y' orthogonal measuring frame system. This was measured in place by a sine/cosine potentiometer that was used to calculate the position of the transducer from the angle of its rotations. This was an exceedingly expensive piece of electronic kit and cost more than their £500 budget. However, Brown managed to scrounge a damaged component and repaired it. The machine was built on top an old hospital bed and made extensive use of Meccano chains and sprockets.[12] By late 1957 the first contact B-mode scanner was constructed and in clinical use by that year.[12] By late 1957 the first contact B-mode scanner was constructed and in clinical use by that year.

The initial test of the device was ultrasound of John MacVicar's abdomen.[26] In the same year, Donald started to experiment with taking images of pregnancy.

In a landmark paper in 7 June 1958, published by Donald, McVicar and Brown discussed the development of the A-mode scanner and decisions that led up to the B-mode scanner.[27] Donald and McVicar also described the first successful diagnosis using obstetric ultrasound with the B-mode machine. This occurred when a women patient was diagnosed with terminal cancer of the stomach using traditional clinical methods, palpation and by X-ray.[12] Donald diagnosed the women with an Ovarian cyst and when the women was sent for a Laparotomy, a large cyst was discovered and removed, vindicating, Donald diagnosis.[28] The paper highlighted the importance of the instant feedback that was available from the operating room to improve the quality of the image.[29] In the paper Donald referenced the work of ultrasound pioneers, Douglass Howry in Denver, United States and Yoshimitsu Kikuchi in Japan in the early 1950's, alongside the work of John J. Wild and John M Reid.[27] Also described in the paper was a description of testing of ultrasound on the brains of kittens to determine if there was any obvious changes in tissue structure. There was none.[12] The teams enthusiasm in the success of the B-mode and the publication of the paper resulted in a change in attitudes in the medical community and more confirmed that medical diagnosis could me made.[12]

Queen Mothers Hospital

Health

For much of his life, Donald suffered from valvular heart disease.[19] Over a period of four years, Donald underwent three major heart operations. For the third operations, a mitral valve replacement with a homograft that had lasted since 1969 was replaced with a Starr Edwards artificial valve in 1976. Donald had published a personal accounts of his second and third cardiac operations.[30]

Bibliography

  • Donald, Ian (25 June 2016). "Sonar: What it Can and Cannot Do in Obstetrics". Scottish Medical Journal. 19 (5): 203–210. doi:10.1177/003693307401900501.
  • Ainsworth, Steve (March 2005). "Good vibrations". The practising midwife. 8 (3). England: 50. ISSN 1461-3123. PMID 16250436.
  • Nicolson, M; Fleming J; Spencer I (February 2005). "Hyaline membrane and neonatal radiology--Ian Donald's first venture into imaging research". Scottish Medical Journal. 50 (1). Scotland: 35–7. doi:10.1177/003693300505000115. ISSN 0036-9330. PMID 15792390.
  • Donald, Ian; Brown T G (July 1995). "Localisation using physical devices, radioisotopes and radiographic methods. I.--Demonstration of tissue interfaces within the body by ultrasonic echo sounding. 1961". The British Journal of Radiology. 68 (811). ENGLAND: H129–36. ISSN 0007-1285. PMID 7640920.
  • MacVicar, John; Donald, Ian (June 1963). "SONAR IN THE DIAGNOSIS OF EARLY PREGNANCY AND ITS COMPLICATIONS". BJOG: An International Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology. 70 (3): 387–395. doi:10.1111/j.1471-0528.1963.tb04920.x.

Awards and honours

References

  1. ^ a b c d e f Adrian M. K. Thomas; Arpan K. Banerjee; Uwe Busch (23 November 2004). Classic Papers in Modern Diagnostic Radiology. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 214–215. ISBN 978-3-540-21927-9. Retrieved 24 July 2019.
  2. ^ a b c d e f g h i "Ian Donald". Munks Roll – Lives of the Fellows. VIII. Royal College of Physicians: Royal College of Physicians: 136. 20 June 1987. Retrieved 5 July 2019.
  3. ^ a b c d "Ian Donald". The University of Glasgow Story. University Roles: University of Glasgow 2018. Retrieved 5 July 2019.
  4. ^ a b c d Tilli Tansey; Daphne Christie, eds. (2000). Looking at the Unborn: Historical aspects of obstetric ultrasound. Wellcome Witnesses to Contemporary Medicine. History of Modern Biomedicine Research Group. ISBN 978-1-84129-011-9. OL 12568268M. Wikidata Q29581634.
  5. ^ Hinds, Alice (18 June 2019). "How the first scans of pioneering doctors transformed treatment of babies before birth". DC Thomson Publishing. The Sunday Post. Retrieved 12 July 2019.
  6. ^ Willocks, James; Barr, Wallace (2004). Ian Donald : a memoir. London: RCOG Press. p. 1. OCLC 57382713.
  7. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q Erjavic, Nicole (30 January 2018). "Ian Donald (1910–1987)". The Embryo Project Encyclopedia. The Embryo Project at Arizona State University. Retrieved 5 July 2019.
  8. ^ "Donald, Ian". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (online ed.). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/40066. (Subscription or UK public library membership required.)
  9. ^ Kurjak, A. (June 2000). "Ultrasound scanning – Prof. Ian Donald (1910–1987)". European Journal of Obstetrics & Gynecology and Reproductive Biology. 90 (2): 187–189. doi:10.1016/S0301-2115(00)00270-0.
  10. ^ James Willocks; Wallace Barr (December 2004). Ian Donald: A Memoir. RCOG. p. 102. ISBN 978-1-904752-00-4. Retrieved 5 July 2019.
  11. ^ a b James Willocks; Wallace Barr (December 2004). Ian Donald: A Memoir. RCOG. p. 16. ISBN 978-1-904752-00-4. Retrieved 12 July 2019.
  12. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q Nicholson, Deborah (2003). Secrets of success:the development of obstetric ultrasound in Scotland, 1963-1990 (PDF) (Phd Thesis). University of Glasgow. Retrieved 18 July 2019.
  13. ^ Donald, Ian; Young, Maureen I. (19 January 1952). "PROCEEDINGS of the physiological society Department of physiology, Royal Free Hospital School of Medicine, Hunter Street and Institute of Ophthalmology, Judd Street, London, W.C.1. 19 January 1952". The Journal of Physiology. 116 (4): 41P–52P. PMC 1392055. PMID 14946717.
  14. ^ a b c d e f g h i Malcolm Nicolson; John E. E. Fleming (2013). Imaging and Imagining the Fetus: The Development of Obstetric Ultrasound. JHU Press. pp. 73–76. ISBN 978-1-4214-0793-7. Retrieved 25 July 2019.
  15. ^ Donald, Ian (1953). "Resuscitation of the newborn" (PDF). Postgraduate Medical Journal. 29 (331): 247–253. doi:10.1136/pgmj.29.331.247. PMC 2500395. PMID 13055546.
  16. ^ Donald, Ian (May 1954). "Augmented Respiration". The Lancet. 263 (6818): 895–899. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(54)91522-6. PMID 13153139.
  17. ^ Willocks, James; Barr, Wallace (2004). Ian Donald : a memoir. London: RCOG Press. pp. 13–14. OCLC 57382713.
  18. ^ Donald, Ian; Macvicar, J; Brown, T.G (June 1958). "Investigation of Abdominal Masses by Pulsed Ultrasound". The Lancet. 271 (7032): 1188–1195. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(58)91905-6. PMID 13550965.
  19. ^ a b Nicolson, Malcolm (2000). "Ian Donald – Diagnostician and Moralist". Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh. Edinburgh. Retrieved 19 July 2019.
  20. ^ a b c d Donald, I (March 1974). "Apologia: how and why medical sonar developed". Annals of the Royal College of Surgeons of England. 54 (3): 132–40. PMC 2388393. PMID 4593690.
  21. ^ a b c d e f g h Brown, Tom (Unpublished article) Development of ultrasonic scanning techniques in Scotland 1956-1979, 1994
  22. ^ a b c d e "Looking at the Unborn: Historical Aspects of Obstetric Ultrasound" (PDF). The History of Modern Biomedicine Research Group. Wellcome Institute for the History of Medicine: Wellcome Trust. 10 March 1998. pp. 17–19. Retrieved 6 August 2019.
  23. ^ Donald, Ian (1974). "Apologia: how and why medical sonar developed". Annals of the Royal College of Surgeons of England. 54. PMC 2388393.
  24. ^ a b Carovac A, Smajlovic F, Junuzovic D (September 2011). "Application of ultrasound in medicine". Acta Inform Med. 19 (3): 168–71. doi:10.5455/aim.2011.19.168-171. PMC 3564184. PMID 23408755.
  25. ^ "Looking at the Unborn: Historical Aspects of Obstetric Ultrasound" (PDF). The History of Modern Biomedicine Research Group. Wellcome Institute for the History of Medicine: Wellcome Trust. 10 March 1998. p. 11,38. Retrieved 6 August 2019.
  26. ^ "Looking at the Unborn: Historical Aspects of Obstetric Ultrasound" (PDF). The History of Modern Biomedicine Research Group. Wellcome Institute for the History of Medicine: Wellcome Trust. 10 March 1998. p. 47. Retrieved 6 August 2019.
  27. ^ a b Donald, Ian; Macvicar, J; Brown, T.G (June 1958). "INVESTIGATION OF ABDOMINAL MASSES BY PULSED ULTRASOUND". The Lancet. 271 (7032): 1188–1195. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(58)91905-6.
  28. ^ Donald, Ian; Macvicar, J; Brown, T.G (June 1958). "Investigation Of Abdominal Masses By Pulsed Ultrasound". The Lancet. 271 (7032): 1188–1195. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(58)91905-6.
  29. ^ Dastur, Adi E; Tank, PD (December 2008). "Ian Donald : the pioneer of ultrasound in medicine" (PDF). J Obstet Gynecol India. 8 (6).
  30. ^ Donald, Ian (1 April 1976). "At the Receiving End: A Doctor's Personal Recollections of Second — Time Cardiac Valve Replacement". Scottish Medical Journal. 21 (2): 49–57. doi:10.1177/003693307602100205.

External links

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