European Union–NATO relations: Difference between revisions
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{{Infobox bilateral relations|European Union–NATO|European Union|NATO|map=European Union NATO Locator.svg}} |
{{Infobox bilateral relations|European Union–NATO|European Union|NATO|map=European Union NATO Locator.svg}} |
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The [[European Union]] (EU) and the [[NATO|North Atlantic Treaty Organisation]] (NATO) are two organisations for international cooperation between member states, albeit in different spheres: NATO is a military alliance whose primary task is to implement collective territorial defence, while the EU entails wider economic and political [[European integration|integration]]. EU member states also pursue a common [[Commons Foreign and Security Policy|foreign policy]], and have equipped the union with tools in the field of defence and crisis management - the [[Common Security and Defence Policy]] (CSDP) [[Structure of the Common Security and Defence Policy|structure]]. The CSDP structure is however much smaller than the [[Structure of NATO#Military command structure|NATO Command Structure]] (NCS), and the extent to which the CSDP should evolve to form a full defence arm for the EU is a point of contention. |
The [[European Union]] (EU) and the [[NATO|North Atlantic Treaty Organisation]] (NATO) are two organisations for international cooperation between member states, albeit in different spheres: NATO is a military alliance whose primary task is to implement clause 5 in the [[North Atlantic Treaty]] on collective territorial defence, while the EU entails wider economic and political [[European integration|integration]]. EU member states also pursue a common [[Commons Foreign and Security Policy|foreign policy]], and have equipped the union with tools in the field of defence and crisis management - the [[Common Security and Defence Policy]] (CSDP) [[Structure of the Common Security and Defence Policy|structure]]. The CSDP structure is however much smaller than the [[Structure of NATO#Military command structure|NATO Command Structure]] (NCS), and the extent to which the CSDP should evolve to form a full defence arm for the EU is a point of contention. The [[Treaty of Lisbon]] introduced a mutual solidarity clause in the [[Treaty on European Union]] (TEU), similar - but not identical - to NATO's article 5. |
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The EU and NATO have [[Member state of the European Union|28]] and [[Member states of NATO|29]] member states, respectively - of which 22 are members of both. Another three NATO members are EU applicants—Albania, Montenegro and Turkey. Two others—Iceland and Norway—have opted to remain outside of the EU, however participate in the [[European Single Market|EU's single market]] as a consequence of [[European Economic Area]] (EEA) membership. The memberships of the EU and NATO are distinct, and some EU member states are traditionally neutral on defence issues. Several EU member states were formerly members of the [[Warsaw Pact]]. Denmark has an opt-out from the CSDP.<ref name="eda.europa1">[http://www.eda.europa.eu/info-hub/defence-data-portal Defence Data Portal], Official 2012 defence statistics from the European Defence Agency</ref> |
The EU and NATO have [[Member state of the European Union|28]] and [[Member states of NATO|29]] member states, respectively - of which 22 are members of both. Another three NATO members are EU applicants—Albania, Montenegro and Turkey. Two others—Iceland and Norway—have opted to remain outside of the EU, however participate in the [[European Single Market|EU's single market]] as a consequence of [[European Economic Area]] (EEA) membership. The memberships of the EU and NATO are distinct, and some EU member states are traditionally neutral on defence issues. Several EU member states were formerly members of the [[Warsaw Pact]]. Denmark has an opt-out from the CSDP.<ref name="eda.europa1">[http://www.eda.europa.eu/info-hub/defence-data-portal Defence Data Portal], Official 2012 defence statistics from the European Defence Agency</ref> |
Revision as of 10:39, 12 October 2019
You can help expand this article with text translated from the corresponding article in French. (October 2019) Click [show] for important translation instructions.
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European Union |
NATO |
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The European Union (EU) and the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) are two organisations for international cooperation between member states, albeit in different spheres: NATO is a military alliance whose primary task is to implement clause 5 in the North Atlantic Treaty on collective territorial defence, while the EU entails wider economic and political integration. EU member states also pursue a common foreign policy, and have equipped the union with tools in the field of defence and crisis management - the Common Security and Defence Policy (CSDP) structure. The CSDP structure is however much smaller than the NATO Command Structure (NCS), and the extent to which the CSDP should evolve to form a full defence arm for the EU is a point of contention. The Treaty of Lisbon introduced a mutual solidarity clause in the Treaty on European Union (TEU), similar - but not identical - to NATO's article 5.
The EU and NATO have 28 and 29 member states, respectively - of which 22 are members of both. Another three NATO members are EU applicants—Albania, Montenegro and Turkey. Two others—Iceland and Norway—have opted to remain outside of the EU, however participate in the EU's single market as a consequence of European Economic Area (EEA) membership. The memberships of the EU and NATO are distinct, and some EU member states are traditionally neutral on defence issues. Several EU member states were formerly members of the Warsaw Pact. Denmark has an opt-out from the CSDP.[1]
History
1948-1951: Common origins, where NATO cannibalises intra-European initiatives
The Western Union, established to implement the 1948 Treaty of Brussels signed by France, the Netherlands, the Benelux countries and the United Kingdom, represents a precursor to both NATO and the EU's defence arm, the Common Security and Defence Policy (CSDP). WUDO's organisational chart as of November 1948, in which solid and dashed lines indicate control and liaison lines, respectively:[2]
Consultative Council (foreign or prime ministers) | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Permanent Commission (4 ambassadors in London plus Foreign Office representative) | Defence Committee (defence ministers) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Military Supply Board | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Chiefs of Staff Committee (WUCOS) | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Finance Committee | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
UN General Assembly Special Committee | Security Committee | Military Committee and Combined Staff of WUCOS | Commanders-in-Chief Committee and its Chairman | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
C-in-C Western Europe Land Forces | C-in-C Western Europe (Tactical) Air Force | Flag Officer Western Europe | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Since the end of World War II, sovereign European countries have entered into treaties and thereby co-operated and harmonised policies (or pooled sovereignty) in an increasing number of areas, in the European integration project or the construction of Europe (French: la construction européenne). The following timeline outlines the legal inception of the European Union (EU)—the principal framework for this unification. The EU inherited many of its present responsibilities from the European Communities (EC), which were founded in the 1950s in the spirit of the Schuman Declaration.
Legend: S: signing F: entry into force T: termination E: expiry de facto supersession Rel. w/ EC/EU framework: de facto inside outside |
European Union (EU) | [Cont.] | ||||||||||||||||
European Communities (EC) | (Pillar I) | |||||||||||||||||
European Atomic Energy Community (EAEC or Euratom) | [Cont.] | |||||||||||||||||
/ / / European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) | ||||||||||||||||||
European Economic Community (EEC) | ||||||||||||||||||
Schengen Rules | European Community (EC) | |||||||||||||||||
'TREVI' | Justice and Home Affairs (JHA, pillar II) | |||||||||||||||||
/ North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) | [Cont.] | Police and Judicial Co-operation in Criminal Matters (PJCC, pillar II) | ||||||||||||||||
Anglo-French alliance |
[Defence arm handed to NATO] | European Political Co-operation (EPC) | Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP, pillar III) | |||||||||||||||
Western Union (WU) | / Western European Union (WEU) | [Tasks defined following the WEU's 1984 reactivation handed to the EU] | ||||||||||||||||
[Social, cultural tasks handed to CoE] | [Cont.] | |||||||||||||||||
Council of Europe (CoE) | ||||||||||||||||||
Entente Cordiale
S: 8 April 1904 |
Davignon report
S: 27 October 1970 |
European Council conclusions
S: 2 December 1975 |
- ^ a b c d e Although not EU treaties per se, these treaties affected the development of the EU defence arm, a main part of the CFSP. The Franco-British alliance established by the Dunkirk Treaty was de facto superseded by WU. The CFSP pillar was bolstered by some of the security structures that had been established within the remit of the 1955 Modified Brussels Treaty (MBT). The Brussels Treaty was terminated in 2011, consequently dissolving the WEU, as the mutual defence clause that the Lisbon Treaty provided for EU was considered to render the WEU superfluous. The EU thus de facto superseded the WEU.
- ^ Plans to establish a European Political Community (EPC) were shelved following the French failure to ratify the Treaty establishing the European Defence Community (EDC). The EPC would have combined the ECSC and the EDC.
- ^ The European Communities obtained common institutions and a shared legal personality (i.e. ability to e.g. sign treaties in their own right).
- ^ The treaties of Maastricht and Rome form the EU's legal basis, and are also referred to as the Treaty on European Union (TEU) and the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union (TFEU), respectively. They are amended by secondary treaties.
- ^ Between the EU's founding in 1993 and consolidation in 2009, the union consisted of three pillars, the first of which were the European Communities. The other two pillars consisted of additional areas of cooperation that had been added to the EU's remit.
- ^ The consolidation meant that the EU inherited the European Communities' legal personality and that the pillar system was abolished, resulting in the EU framework as such covering all policy areas. Executive/legislative power in each area was instead determined by a distribution of competencies between EU institutions and member states. This distribution, as well as treaty provisions for policy areas in which unanimity is required and qualified majority voting is possible, reflects the depth of EU integration as well as the EU's partly supranational and partly intergovernmental nature.
1954: Failure to establish a European pillar in NATO
Had its founding treaty not failed to acquire ratification in the French Parliament in 1954, the European Defence Community would have entailed a pan-European military, divided into national components, and had a common budget, common arms, centralized military procurement, and institutions. The EDC would have had an integral link to NATO, forming an autonomous European pillar in the Atlantic alliance.
1996-present: Tensions and mutual interests as EU gains autonomous defence structures
Following the establishment of the ESDI and the St. Malo declaration, US Secretary of State Madeleine Albright were among others who voiced concern that an independent European security pillar could undermine NATO, as she put forth the three famous D's:
Our [...] task is working together to develop [the ESDI] within [NATO], which the United States has strongly endorsed. We enthusiastically support any such measures that enhance European capabilities. The United States welcomes a more capable European partner, with modern, flexible military forces capable of putting out fires in Europe's own back yard and working with us through [NATO] to defend our common interests. The key to a successful initiative is to focus on practical military capabilities. Any initiative must avoid preempting [NATO] decision-making by de-linking ESDI from NATO, avoid duplicating existing efforts, and avoid discriminating against non-EU members. [...]
Eastern enlargement
Present cooperation agreements
The Berlin Plus agreement enables EU operations to be planned and conducted at the military strategic and operational level with recourse to assets and capabilities in the NATO Command Structure (NCS). In such an event, an Operational Headquarters (OHQ) would be set up within NATO's Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe (SHAPE) in Mons, Belgium. SHAPE is the main headquarters of Allied Command Operations (ACO).
When the NCS provides the OHQ, the Deputy Supreme Allied Commander Europe (DSACEUR) acts as Operation Commander (OpCdr).
The Berlin Plus agreement requires that the use of NATO assets by the EU is subject to a "right of first refusal", i.e. NATO must first decline to intervene in a given crisis,[4][5] and contingent on unanimous approval among NATO states, including those outside of the EU. For example, Turkish reservations about Operation Concordia using NATO assets delayed its deployment by more than five months.[6]
Comparison
Command structures
The CSDP entails collective self-defence amongst member states. This responsibility is based on Article 42.7 of TEU, which states that this responsibility does not prejudice the specific character of the security and defence policy of certain member states, referring to policies of nautrality. See Neutral country§European Union for discussion on this subject. According to the Article 42.7 "If a Member State is the victim of armed aggression on its territory, the other Member States shall have towards it an obligation of aid and assistance by all the means in their power, in accordance with Article 51 of the United Nations Charter. This shall not prejudice the specific character of the security and defence policy of certain Member States." Article 42.2 furthermore specifies that NATO shall be the main forum for the implementation of collective self-defence for EU member states that are also NATO members.
The EU does not have a permanent military command structure similar to the North Atlantic Treaty Organization's (NATO) Allied Command Operations (ACO), although it has been agreed that ACO resources may be used for the conduct of the EU's CSDP missions under the Berlin Plus agreement. The Military Planning and Conduct Capability (MPCC), established in 2017 and to be strengthened in 2020, does however represent the EU's first step in developing a permanent military OHQ. In parallel, the newly established European Defence Fund (EDF) marks the first time the EU budget is used to finance multinational defence projects.
European Union
The EU command and control (C2) structure is directed by political bodies composed of member states' representatives, and generally requires unanimous decisions. As of April 2019:[7]
- Liaison: Advice and recommendations Support and monitoring Preparatory work
Political strategic level:[5] | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
ISS | EUCO Pres. (EUCO) | Chain of command | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Coordination/support | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
SatCen | CIVCOM | HR/VP (FAC) | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
INTCEN | HR/VP (PMG) | HR/VP (PSC)[6] | CEUMC (EUMC) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
CMPD | DGEUMS[3] (EUMS) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Military/civilian strategic level: | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Dir MPCC[3] (MPCC) | JSCC | Civ OpCdr CPCC[1] | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Operational level: | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
MFCdr[4] (MFHQ) | HoM[1] | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Tactical level: | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
CC[2] Land | CC[2] Air | CC[2] Mar | Other CCs[2] | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Forces | Forces | Forces | Forces | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
- 1 In the event of a CSDP Civilian Mission also being in the field, the relations with the Civilian Planning and Conduct Capability (CPCC) and its Civilian Operation Commander (Civ OpCdr), as well as the subordinate Head of Mission (HoM), are coordinated as shown.
- 2 Other Component Commanders (CCs) and service branches which may be established.
- 3 The MPCC is part of the EUMS and Dir MPCC is double-hatted as DGEUMS. Unless the MPCC is used as Operation Headquarters (OHQ), either a national OHQ offered by member states or the NATO Command Structure (NCS) would serve this purpose. In the latter instance, Deputy Supreme Allied Commander Europe (DSACEUR), rather than Dir MPCC, would serve as Operation Commander (OpCdr).
- 4 Unless the MPCC is used as Operation Headquarters (OHQ), the MFCdr would be known as a Force Commander (FCdr), and direct a Force Headquarters (FHQ) rather than a MFHQ. Whereas the MFHQ would act both on the operational and tactical level, the FHQ would act purely on the operational level.
- 5 The political strategic level is not part of the C2 structure per se, but represents the political bodies, with associated support facilities, that determine the missions' general direction. The Council determines the role of the High Representative (HR/VP), who serves as Vice-President of the European Commission, attends European Council meetings, chairs the Foreign Affairs Council (FAC) and may chair the Political and Security Committee (PSC) in times of crisis. The HR/VP proposes and implements CSDP decisions.
- 6 Same composition as Committee of Permanent Representatives (COREPER) II, which also prepares for the CSDP-related work of the FAC.
NATO
Memberships
Out of the 28 EU member states, 22 are also members of NATO. Another three NATO members are EU applicants—Albania, Montenegro and Turkey. Two others—Iceland and Norway—have opted to remain outside of the EU, however participate in the EU's single market. The memberships of the EU and NATO are distinct, and some EU member states are traditionally neutral on defence issues. Several EU member states were formerly members of the Warsaw Pact. Denmark has an opt-out from the CSDP.[1]
European Union (in respect of its defence arm, the Common Security and Defence Policy) |
NATO | ||
---|---|---|---|
Mutual defence clause | Article 42.7 of the consolidated version of the Treaty on European Union:
"If a Member State is the victim of armed aggression on its territory, the other Member States shall have towards it an obligation of aid and assistance by all the means in their power, in accordance with Article 51 of the United Nations Charter. This shall not prejudice the specific character of the security and defence policy of certain Member States. [...]" |
Article 5 of the North Atlantic Treaty:
"The Parties agree that an armed attack against one or more of them [on their territory] shall be considered an attack against them all and consequently they agree that, if such an armed attack occurs, each of them, in exercise of the right of individual or collective self-defence recognised by Article 51 of the Charter of the United Nations, will assist the Party or Parties so attacked by taking forthwith, individually and in concert with the other Parties, such action as it deems necessary, including the use of armed force, to restore and maintain the security of the North Atlantic area. [...]" | |
Political strategic organisation | |||
Highest office | High Representative (HR/VP) | Secretary General | |
Principal decision-making body | Foreign Affairs Council | North Atlantic Council | |
Liaison body | European External Action Service | International Staff | |
Seat | Kortenberg building (Brussels, Belgium) | NATO headquarters (Brussels, Belgium) | |
Military strategic organisation | |||
Supreme commander | Director of the Military Planning and Conduct Capability | Supreme Allied Commander Europe | |
Headquarters | Military Planning and Conduct Capability (Brussels, Belgium) | Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe (Mons, Belgium) | |
Chair of chiefs of defence assembly | Chairman of the European Union Military Committee | Chair of the NATO Military Committee | |
Chiefs of defence assembly | European Union Military Committee | NATO Military Committee | |
Advisory body | European Union Military Staff | International Military Staff | |
Membership | Permanent Structured Cooperation | Membership | |
Member states of both the EU and NATO | |||
Belgium | Founder | Founder | Founder |
Bulgaria | 2007 | Founder | 2004 |
Croatia | 2013 | Founder | 2009 |
Czech Republic | 2004 | Founder | 1999 |
Denmark | 1973 | 2023 | Founder |
Estonia | 2004 | Founder | 2004 |
Finland | 1995 | Founder | 2023 |
France | Founder | Founder | Founder |
Germany | Founder | Founder | 1955 |
Greece | 1981 | Founder | 1952 |
Hungary | 2004 | Founder | 1999 |
Italy | Founder | Founder | Founder |
Latvia | 2004 | Founder | 2004 |
Lithuania | 2004 | Founder | 2004 |
Luxembourg | Founder | Founder | Founder |
Netherlands | Founder | Founder | Founder |
Poland | 2004 | Founder | 1999 |
Portugal | 1986 | Founder | Founder |
Romania | 2007 | Founder | 2004 |
Slovakia | 2004 | Founder | 2004 |
Slovenia | 2004 | Founder | 2004 |
Spain | 1986 | Founder | 1982 |
Sweden | 1995 | Founder | 2024 |
Non-NATO EU member states | |||
Austria | 1995 | Founder | Partnership for Peace |
Cyprus | 2004 | Founder | No |
Ireland | 1973 | Founder | Partnership for Peace |
Malta | 2004 | No | Partnership for Peace |
Non-EU NATO member states | |||
Albania | Candidate | — | 2009 |
Iceland | No | — | Founder |
Montenegro | Candidate | — | 2017 |
North Macedonia | Candidate | — | 2020 |
Norway | Defence Agency agreement | — | Founder |
Turkey | Candidate | — | 1952 |
United Kingdom | No | — | Founder |
European countries outside both the EU and NATO | |||
Andorra | No | — | No |
Armenia | No | — | Individual Partnership Action Plan |
Azerbaijan | No | — | Individual Partnership Action Plan |
Belarus | No | — | Partnership for Peace |
Bosnia and Herzegovina | Candidate | — | Membership Action Plan |
Georgia | Candidate | — | Intensified Dialogue |
Kazakhstan | No | — | Individual Partnership Action Plan |
Kosovo | Applicant / Potential candidate | — | No |
Liechtenstein | No | — | No |
Moldova | Candidate | — | Individual Partnership Action Plan |
Monaco | No | — | No |
Russia | No | — | Partnership for Peace |
San Marino | No | — | No |
Serbia | Candidate | — | Individual Partnership Action Plan |
Switzerland | Defence Agency agreement | — | Partnership for Peace |
Ukraine | Candidate | — | Intensified Dialogue |
Vatican City | No | — | No |
NATO member states located in North America, which are therefore ineligible for EU membership | |||
Canada | — | — | Founder |
United States | — | — | Founder |
Members of NATO's Partnership for Peace located outside Europe, which are therefore neither eligible for EU nor NATO membership | |||
Kyrgyzstan | — | — | Partnership for Peace |
Tajikistan | — | — | Partnership for Peace |
Turkmenistan | — | — | Partnership for Peace |
Uzbekistan | — | — | Partnership for Peace |
See also
- United States–European Union relations
- Canada–European Union relations
- Turkey–European Union relations
- Brexit
- Western European Union
References
- ^ a b Defence Data Portal, Official 2012 defence statistics from the European Defence Agency
- ^ "Memorandum by the Joint Chiefs of Staff 1 to the Secretary of Defense (Forrestal)". Office of the Historian. Retrieved 14 May 2020.
- ^ https://1997-2001.state.gov/statements/1998/981208.html
- ^ "EU Operations Centre".
- ^ Heritage Foundation report, March 24, 2008. [1]
- ^ Bram Boxhoorn, Broad Support for NATO in the Netherlands, 21-09-2005, "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2007-02-18. Retrieved 2007-08-19.
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) - ^ EU Command and Control, p. 13, Military Staff
External links
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