Influence of French on English

The influence of French on English has long existed not only in terms of syntax and grammar, but also in terms of lexicon, spelling and pronunciation.

Most of this vocabulary entered English after the Norman conquest of England in 1066 and the establishment of a French-speaking administration. French became the language of the court, the administration and the elites for several centuries, until after the Hundred Years War. English has been constantly nurtured by French since that time till present day. According to Laura K. Lawless, more than a third of the current English vocabulary is of French origin. According to linguist Henriette Walter, words of French origin represent more than two thirds of the English vocabulary. It is estimated by linguist Anthony Lacoudre that over 40 000 English words are directly French and may be understood without orthographical change by French speakers.

History of French in England

Before 1066

At the beginning of XIth century, the English language did not have a well-defined status. Indeed, the inhabitants of what would become Great Britain did not have a language that allowed them to communicate with each other. The different parlours in use existed under different dialectal forms. Great Britain, in which various Celtic idioms had coexisted since the IVth century, had experienced partial Roman occupation since the Ist century A.D., for four centuries.

From 450 onwards, the Saxons, the Angles and the Jutes, who came from the continent, settled in the south and east. Germanic dialects will prevail in these regions, supplanting Celtic dialects, which will remain in the west and north of the island (Wales, Cornwall, Scotland) and Ireland. In the VIIIth century, Vikings from Scandinavia settled on the island. Their languages, also Germanic, in turn influence the languages already present on the island. Thus, at the dawn of XIth century, the country was made up of a series of peoples with significantly different speeches, most of them Germanic, with multiple influences.

Norman conquest of England and its consequences

It is therefore a linguistically disunited people that the Normans will get massively in contact with, from 1066. William II of Normandy, supported by his King, Philip I of France, and his blood legitimacy to the throne of England, landed at Hastings, in Sussex, on 29 September 1066. His men are deployed around the city waiting for the king Harold II's troops. On October 14, exhausted by the long journey to Hastings, Harold II's troops lost the battle after a day. Following the defeat of the English, Duke William II of Normandy became King of England on December 25, 1066, crowned under the name of William I of England, also known as William the Conqueror. This date marks the beginning of a long period of ties between the peoples and languages.

In fact, these links already existed before the Battle of Hastings. Indeed, the geographical location of Normandy, facing the English Channel, favoured commercial contacts with England. These ties will be further strengthened at the beginning of the XIth century when the daughter of the Duke Richard II of Normandy, Emma, marries King Æthelred II of England. But it is really from the 1066 conquest that proto-English becomes massively impregnated with Old French, then modern French. It should be noted, however, that only French will influence English in the centuries following the conquest. The reverse contribution of English to French will only be real from the XVIIIth century.

The arrival of William the Conqueror and his barons significantly changed the linguistic situation in England. Norman is essentially imposed in the upper layers of society. The Anglo-Saxon dialects were supplanted by Norman in the circles of the court and aristocracy, justice and the Church. The influential circles, who came from Normandy and settled in England, kept their Norman mother tongue, while the more modest rural and urban strata continued to speak English.

Norman is a particular variety of the Gallo-Roman language, spoken in Normandy. It is one of the Oil languages alongside, among others, the Picard and the Walloon. The Norman language is modified in contact with the Anglo-Saxon language. It then integrates words and phrases from English and will give birth to a dialect, Anglo-Norman, still spoken on the Anglo-Norman isles. Anglo-Norman can be described as a vernacular language, on English soil in the XIth century, in the field of literature, culture, court and among the clergy. French was therefore, at first, spoken in England under the form of this Anglo-Norman dialect.

During the XIIth century, continental French has a greater influence on Old English. It acquires great prestige in England, especially within the aristocracy and the clergy. It becomes the language of law and justice nationwide. Rich and noble families, most of them of Norman origin, teach their children French or send them to study in France. The expansion of the French language in England was also encouraged by royal marriages. From Henry II Plantagenet and Eleanor of Aquitaine at the beginning of the century, to Henri VI and Marguerite in the XVth century, all kings of England married French princesses. These marriages made French the language of the English court for several centuries and were decisive in strengthening the use of French in England. This period (XIIth-XVth centuries) is characterized by a massive influx of French words into Old English vocabulary.

In 1204, Philippe Auguste Normandy is officially annexed to the kingdom of France, politically isolating England from the continent. Normans who choose to stay in England move further away from France and, therefore, from the French language. Keeping its status as the language of justice and the language of power, England saw the first teaching manuals for teaching French to the English. These manuals were intended for English nobles who wish to perfect their knowledge of French and teach it to their children. Two types of French spoken in the higher spheres of English society can be distinguished during the XIIIth century : the Anglo-Norman dialect, which was the aristocrats' mother tongue, and a more prestigious type of French as a second language. Knowing "parisian" French was a mark of social distinction. As a language of culture, French supplanted Latin from the XIIth century onward as the language of diplomacy and worldly relations throughout Europe. The mass and influence of French literature reinforced its reputation and appeal.

The developing use of French

The XVIth century, that of the Renaissance, is a decisive century for French since king François I of France, through the Ordonnance de Villers-Cotterêts (1539), makes French the official language of administration in the whole kingdom. Although troubled by the European wars of religion, the Italian Wars, the language is marked by intellectual, technical and scientific effervescence. It ushered in an era of prosperity that would also spread to England through French.

The XVIIth century announces the apogee of the Kingdom of France. This period was characterized by the political, literary and artistic prestige of France and the French language. Peace restored and unity ensured in the country, economy grew considerably. Personalities such as the King Henri IV, the Cardinal of Richelieu or the Sun King contribute to fixing and enhancing the French language in Europe, the Americas, India and Oceania.

The creation of the Académie française by Richelieu in 1635, under Louis XIII, was a step that led to the standardization of French in continental Europe and abroad, including England. French is then the second language of all the elites in Europe, from Turkey to Ireland and from Moscow to Lisbon. The greatest scholars and intellectuals, writers and scientists, express themselves and correspond in this new standardised French. French is considered a perfect language, whose beauty and elegance are determined by the development of scientific logic, aided by dictionaries and grammars.

In the XXIst Century

The geographical use of French has continuously and greatly diversified in the last five hundred years, with countries and states like New-Brunswick, Quebec, Ivory Coast, Benin, Togo, Guinea, Cameroon, Congo, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Madagascar, Mauritius, Tchad, Djibouti, Senegal, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Lebanon, France, Belgium, Switzerland, Luxembourg, Monaco, Aosta Valley, French Polynesia and Vanuatu adopting it as their official language. This geographical diversity has led to many different contacts with vernacular dialects, regional and international languages, from which French has often been enriched locally. In a number of countries and regions where French shares co-officiality with English (Cameroon, Canada, Jersey, Mauritius, Rwanda, Vanuatu), particular lexical regionalisms are observed where French and English terms are used interchangeably.

The contribution of the French lexicon to English

Several elements must be observed.

• Sometimes, the English words' form has kept traces of Old French, written or oral, such as certain consonants (forest / forest) or certain vowels or diphthongs (veil / voil; leisure / leisure), the current French sometimes deviating more from its old form than the English (i.e. Old French ante gives "tante" in modern French and is written 'aunt' in modern English).
• Many English nouns, verbs and adjectives borrowed from Old French have not always kept the meaning they had in Old French. Sometimes, they have developed a different meaning from French. In both cases, these words are false friends (egre giving 'sour' (aigre) in French while mutating into 'eager' in English).
• Other English words are composed of both words of French and Germanic origins (handkerchief: hand is from the proto-Germanic khanduz and kerchief is a mutation on the old French core chief)
• Some forms of Old French did not survive in modern French, while they still exist in English (soulace,conceler,estriver,gone).
• It is not uncommon either for an English concept to have two or even three vocabulary words to describe it, one of French origin, a part from proto-Germanic and another of Latin origin (royal, kingly, and regal all mean the same thing, 'royal').
• Most of the English words ending in -ous, -ty (on the model of -té),-tion, -ture, -ture, -ent are of French origin.
• Uses in social and intellectual life, but also certain domestic and food uses, demonstrate the omnipresence of French in English society in many fields, for example the names of meat: "beef" comes from the French buef (beef), "mutton" from moton (sheep), "pork" from pork, "veal" from vel (calf).
• Some words borrowed in the XIXth and XXth centuries are still considered foreign words, French words (such as chic). They are generally used by educated English people or by the press and other media and are seen as part of a distinguished language.
• Some Anglicisms are actually words that were borrowed from French a long time ago and have recently been borrowed back from English (such as bacon).

The following French glossary in English is in no way exhaustive. These words come as examples to illustrate the countless French words that are part of the English language.

In this section, examples of French-to-English lexical contributions are classified by field and in chronological order. The periods during which these words were used in the English language are specified as much as possible. It is not always possible to state with certainty the precise period from which a word was borrowed or integrated.

The English word is on the left, with its current French equivalent in brackets, then comes its Old French origin in bold and the century of its introduction on the right.

Law and society

• Crown (couronne) : couronne, XIIth c.
• Custom (coutume) : custume, XII-XIIIth c.
• Squire (propriétaire terrien) : from escuier, the bearer of the écu, bouclier, XII-XIIIth c.
• Assizes (assises) : from assises, XIIIth c.
• Franchise (franchise) : from franchise, XIIIth c.
• Joust (joute) : from joust, XIIIth c.
• Marriage (marriage) : from marriage, spouses' belongings, XIIIth c.
• Parliament (parlement) : from parlement, conversation, XIIIth c.
• Heir (héritier) : from heir, XIIIth c.
• Summon (convoquer) : from semondre, invite someone to do something, XIIIth c.
• Nice (bon, gentil) : from nice, idiot/stupid, XIIIth-XIVth c.
• Bourgeois, from bourgeois, XVIIth c.
• Fiancé, from fiancé, XIXth c.
• Chef/chief, from chef, XIXth c.
• Flirt, from conter fleurette, flower storytelling.

Commerce

• Caterer (approvisionneur) : from Old Norman acatour, buyer, XIth c.
• Pay (payer) : from paier, appease, XIIth c.
• Ticket (ticket) : from estiquet, small sign, XIIth c.
• Purchase (acheter) : from prochacier, "to try obtain (something)", XIIth c.
• Rental (loyer) : from rental, subject to an annual fee, XIIth c.
• Debt (dette) : from det, XIIIth c.
• Affair (affaire; liaison amoureuse) : from à faire, XIIIth c.
• Bargain (marchander) : from bargaignier, hesitate, XIVth c.
• Budget : from bougette, small fabric pocket with bills of exchange and coins.

Sport

• Champion (champion) : from champion, end XIth c.
• Sport (sport) : from desport, entertainment, XIIth c.
• Challenge (challenge) : from chalenge, XIIth c.
• Record (record) : from record, XIIth-XIIIth c.
• To record (enregistrer) : from recorder, XIIth-XIIIth c.
• Court (cour) : from court/curt/cort, XIIIth c.
• Tennis (tennis) : from tenez, hold, XIVth c.
• Hockey (hockey) : from hocquet, hooked stick, date unknown.

Domestic life

• Aunt (tante) : from ante, XIIth c.
• Butler (majordome, maître d’hôtel) : from bouteleur (XIIth c.), or bouteiller (XIVth c.), sommelier.
• Chamber (chambre) : from chambre, XIIIth c.
• Curtain (rideau) : from cortine, bed curtain, XIIIth c.
• Blanket (couverture) : from blanquette, white sheet cover, XIIIth c.
• Towel (serviette) : from toailler, XIIIth c.
• Chair (chaise) : from chaiere, XIIIth c.
• Pantry (garde-manger) : from paneterie, bread storage place, XIIIth c.
• Cushion (coussin) : from coissin, XIVth c.
• Closet (placard ou cabinet) : from closet, small enclosure, XIVth c.

Kitchen

• Cabbage (choux) : from caboche, "head" in Norman-Picard language, XIth c.
• Bacon (bacon) : from bacon, pork meat, "Salted bacon arrow", beginning of the XIIth c.
• Custard (crème épaisse) : from crouste, crust, XIIth-XIIIth c.
• Toast (tartine grillée) : from the verb toster, to grill, XIIth-XIIIth c.
• Cauldron (chaudron) : from Anglo-Norman caudron, XIIth-XIIIth c.
• Cattle (bétail) : from Anglo-Normand catel, property, XIIth-XIIIth c.
• Mustard (moutarde) : from moustarde, condiment made from seeds mixed with grape must, XIIIth c.
• Grape (raisin) : from grape, bunch of grapes, XIIIth c.
• Mutton (viande de mouton) : from moton, sheep, end XIIIth c.
• Beef (viande de bœuf) : from buef, beef, circa 1300.
• Pork (viande de porc) : from porc, circa 1300.
• Poultry (viande de volaille) : from pouletrie, poultry (the animal), circa end XIVth c.
• Claret (clairet, rouge de Bordeaux) : from claret, red wine, XIVth c.
• Mince (couper fin, émincer) : from mincier, to cut in small pieces, XIVth c.
• Stew (ragoût) : from estuver, to "soak in a hot bath", XIVth c.
• Veal (viande de veau) : from vel, calf, en XIVth c.
• Banquet (banquet) : from banquet, XVth c.
• Carrot (carotte) : XVIth c.
• Aperitif (apéritif) : XVIth c.
• Hors d’œuvre : end XVIIth c.
• Douceur (petit cadeau, pourboire) : end XVIIth.
• Casserole (plat mijoté) : end XVIIth c.
• Menu : end XVIIth c.
• Gratin : end XVIIth c.
• Terrine : XVIIIth c.
• Croissant : XIXth c.
• Foie gras : XIXth c.
• Mayonnaise : XIXth c.
• Buffet : XIXth c.
• Restaurant : XIXth c.
• Bouillon : XXth c.
• Velouté : XXth c.
• Confit : XXth c.
• À la carte : XXth c.

Art of living and fashion

• Gown (robe) : from gone, pantyhose, XIIth c.
• Attire (tenue, vêtement) : from atir, "what is used for clothing", XIIth c.
• Petticoat (jupon) : from petti ("of little value") and cotte ("long tunic"), XIIIth c.
• Poney (poney) : from poulenet or poleney, foal, date unknown.
• Toilette, XVIIth c.
• Lingerie (peignoir), end XVIIth c.
• Blouse, end XVIIth c.
• Rouge (rouge à lèvres) : from rouge à lèvres, lipstick, end XVIIth c.
• Salon : end XVIIth c.
• Couturier : XIXth c.
• Luxe : XIXth c.
• Eau de Cologne/Cologne : XIXth c.
• Massage : XIXth c.
• Renaissance : XIXth c.
• Chic : XXth c.
• Boutique : XXth c.
• Prêt à porter : XXth c.
• Libertine (libertin) : XXth c.
• Parfum/perfume : from parfum XXth c.
• Déjà vu : XXth c.

Other domains

• Canvas (toile) : from Norman-Picard canevas, XIth c.
• Catch (attraper) : from Old Norman cachier, to hunt, XIth-XIIth c.
• Proud (fier) : from prud, valiant, beginning XIIth c.
• Causeway (chaussée) : from Anglo-Norman calciata, XIIth c.
• Kennel (chenil) : from Anglo-Norman kenil, dog, XIIth-XIIIth c.
• Guile (fourberie, ruse) : from guile, fraud/deceitfulness, XIIth-XIIIth c.
• Foreign (étranger) : from forain, "the stranger", XIIth-XIIIth c.
• Grief (chagrin) : from grief, XIIth-XIIIth c.
• Solace (consolation) : from soulace, "the rejoicing", XIIth-XIIIth c.
• Scorn (mépris) : from escorner, to insult, XIIth-XIIIth c.
• Square (carré) : from esquarre, XIIth-XIIIth c.
• Conceal (cacher) : from conceler, to hide, XIIth-XIIIth c.
• Strive (s’efforcer) : from estriver, to make efforts, XIIth-XIIIth c.
• Very (très) : from veray, true, XIIth-XIIIth c.
• Faint (faible) : from feint, soft/unenthusiastic, XIIth-XIIIth c.
• Eager (désireux de) : from egre, sour, XIIth-XIIIth c.
• Challenge (défi) : from chalenge, XIIIth c.
• Change (changer) : from the verb changier, to change, XIIIth c.
• Chapel (chapelle) : from chapele, XIIIth c.
• Choice (choix) : from chois, XIIIth c.
• Mischief (malice, méchanceté) : from meschef, misfortune, XIIIth c.
• Achieve (achever) : from achever, come to an end/acomplish (a task), XIIIth.
• Bizarre : XVIIth c.
• Rendez-vous : XVIIth c.

Bibliography

• Chirol Laure, Les « mots français » et le mythe de la France en anglais contemporain, Paris, Klincksieck (coll. « Études linguistiques », 17), 1973, 215 p.
• Duchet Jean-Louis, « Éléments pour une histoire de l'accentuation lexicale en anglais », Études Anglaises : Grande-Bretagne, États-Unis, vol. 47, 1994, pp. 161–170.
• Kristol Andres Max, « Le début du rayonnement parisien et l'unité du français au Moyen âge : le témoignage des manuels d'enseignement du français écrits en Angleterre entre le XIIIe et le début du XVe siècle », Revue de Linguistique Romane, vol. 53, (1989), pp. 335–367.
• Lusignan Serge, La langue des rois au Moyen Âge. Le français en France et en Angleterre, Paris, PUF (coll. « Le nœud gordien »), 2004, 296 p.
• Mossé Fernand, Esquisse d'une histoire de la langue anglaise, 1^ère édition, Lyon, IAC, 1947, 268 p.
• Rothwell William, « À quelle époque a-t-on cessé de parler français en Angleterre ? », Mélanges de philologie romane offerts à Charles Camproux, 1978, pp. 1075–1089.
• Walter Henriette, Honni soit qui mal y pense : l'incroyable histoire d'amour entre le français et l'anglais, Paris, Robert Laffont, 2001, 364 p.

See also

• Francophonie
• Francophone countries
• Organisation Internationale de la Francophonie
• History of France
• History of England
• Languages