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In 208 BC, the Qin Chinese renegade general [[Zhao Tuo]] defeated [[An Dương Vương]], the king of [[Âu Lạc]] in north Vietnam and |
In 208 BC, the Qin Chinese renegade general [[Zhao Tuo]] defeated [[An Dương Vương]], the king of [[Âu Lạc]] in north Vietnam and |
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conquered the Âu Lạc Kingdom, an ancient Vietnamese state situated in the northern mountains of modern Vietnam populated by the ancient [[Lạc Việt]] and [[Âu Việt]].<ref>{{Cite book |title=Ethnic Chinese As Southeast Asians |last=Suryadinata |first=Leo |publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian Studies |year=1997 |page=268}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=World On Fire |last=Chua |first= Amy |publisher=Knopf Doubleday Publishing |year=2003 |isbn=978-0385721868 |pages=33}}</ref> He annexed Âu Lạc into the Qin Empire the following and declared himself the emperor of Nanyue.<ref>{{Cite book |title=World On Fire |last=Chua |first= Amy |publisher=Knopf Doubleday Publishing |year=2003 |isbn=978-0385721868 |pages=33}}</ref> Towards the end of the Qin dynasty, many peasant rebellions led Zhao Tuo to claim independence from the imperial government and declared himself the emperor of Nanyue in 207 BC. Zhao led the peasants to rise up against the |
conquered the Âu Lạc Kingdom, an ancient Vietnamese state situated in the northern mountains of modern Vietnam populated by the ancient [[Lạc Việt]] and [[Âu Việt]].<ref>{{Cite book |title=Ethnic Chinese As Southeast Asians |last=Suryadinata |first=Leo |publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian Studies |year=1997 |page=268}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=World On Fire |last=Chua |first= Amy |publisher=Knopf Doubleday Publishing |year=2003 |isbn=978-0385721868 |pages=33}}</ref> He annexed Âu Lạc into the Qin Empire the following and declared himself the emperor of Nanyue.<ref>{{Cite book |title=World On Fire |last=Chua |first= Amy |publisher=Knopf Doubleday Publishing |year=2003 |isbn=978-0385721868 |pages=33}}</ref> Towards the end of the Qin dynasty, many peasant rebellions led Zhao Tuo to claim independence from the imperial government and declared himself the emperor of Nanyue in 207 BC. Zhao led the peasants to rise up against the much despised Qinshi Emperor.<ref>{{Cite paper |last=Huang |first=Pingwen |title=Sinification of the Zhuang People, Culture, And Their Language |url=http://sealang.net/sala/archives/pdf4/huang2002sinification.pdf |journal= SEALS |volume= XII |pages=92}}</ref> Zhao opened up Guangxi and southern China to the immigration of hundreds of thousands of Han Chinese and the kingdom of [[Nanyue]] was established after the collapse of the Qin dynasty in 204 BC.<ref>{{Cite paper |last=Huang |first=Pingwen |title=Sinification of the Zhuang People, Culture, And Their Language |url=http://sealang.net/sala/archives/pdf4/huang2002sinification.pdf |journal= SEALS |volume= XII |pages=92}}</ref> At its height, Nanyue was the strongest of the Yue states, with Zhao declaring himself emperor and receiving allegiance from the neighboring kings.<ref>[http://ctext.org/shiji/li-sheng-lu-jia-lie-zhuan#n8359 Records of the Grand Historian, section 97] 《史記·酈生陸賈列傳》</ref> The dominant ethnicities of this kingdom were the Han Chinese and Yue, who held all the most important positions in the kingdom.<ref>{{cite book | title = 南越国史 | last1 = Zhang | first1 = Rongfang | last2 = Huang | first2 = Miaozhang | publisher = Guangdong renmin chubanshe | year = 1995 | isbn = 978-7-218-01982-6 | pages = 170–174}}</ref> Unlike Emperor Qin Shi Huang, Zhao respected Yue customs, rallied their local rulers, and forced local chiefs to be controlled by central government administrators. Under Zhao's rule, he encouraged Han Chinese settlers to intermarry with the indigenous Yue and embarked on a sinicization campaign that promoted Han Chinese culture and customs to assimilate the Yue tribes.<ref>{{Cite paper |last=Huang |first=Pingwen |title=Sinification of the Zhuang People, Culture, And Their Language |url=http://sealang.net/sala/archives/pdf4/huang2002sinification.pdf |journal= SEALS |volume= XII |pages=92}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Becoming Chinese American: A History of Communities and Institutions |last=Him |first=Mark Lai |last2=Hsu |first2= Madeline |publisher=AltaMira Press |year=2004 |isbn=978-0759104587 |publication-date=May 4, 2004 |page=5}}</ref> |
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In 111 BC, the powerful Han dynasty [[Han conquest of Nanyue|annexed]] Nanyue into the Han Empire and it was [[First Chinese domination of Vietnam|ruled as a Chinese province]] for the next several hundred years until 939 AD.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Becoming Chinese American: A History of Communities and Institutions |last=Him |first=Mark Lai |last2=Hsu |first2= Madeline |publisher=AltaMira Press |year=2004 |isbn=978-0759104587 |publication-date=May 4, 2004 |page=5}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | title = Ancient China and the Yue: Perceptions and Identities on the Southern Frontier, c.400 BCE–50 CE | given = Erica Fox | surname = Brindley | publisher = Cambridge University Press | year = 2015 | isbn = 978-1-316-35228-1| page = 95-96}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=The Vietnam War (Twentieth Century Wars) |last=Anderson |first=David |publisher=Palgrave |year=2005 |isbn=978-0333963371}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=World On Fire |last=Chua |first= Amy |publisher=Knopf Doubleday Publishing |year=2003 |isbn=978-0385721868 |pages=33}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Ethnic Chinese As Southeast Asians |last=Suryadinata |first=Leo |publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian Studies |year=1997 |page=268}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=World On Fire |last=Chua |first= Amy |publisher=Knopf Doubleday Publishing |year=2003 |isbn=978-0385721868 |pages=33}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Ethnic Chinese As Southeast Asians |last=Suryadinata |first=Leo |publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian Studies |year=1997 |page=268}}</ref> Nanyue was seen as attractive to the Han rulers as they desired to secure the area's maritime trade routes and gain access to luxury goods from the south such as pearls, incense, elephant tusks, rhinoceros horns, tortoise shells, coral, parrots, kingfishers, peacocks, and other rare items to satisfy the demands of the Han aristocracy.<ref>{{Cite book |title=A Short History of China and Southeast Asia: Tribute, Trade and Influence |last=Stuart-Fox |first=Martin |publisher=Allen & Unwin |year=2003 |publication-date=November 1, 2003 |page=24}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=World and Its Peoples: Eastern and Southern Asia |publisher= Cavendish Square Publishing |year=2008 |publication-date=September 1, 2008 |page=742}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=The Origins of Ancient Vietnam (Oxford Studies in the Archaeology of Ancient States) |last=. Kim |first= Nam C |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2015 |isbn=978-0199980888 |publication-date=November 2, 2015 |pages=251}}</ref> During the Han dynasty, [[Panyu]] was already functioning as a center for international maritime trade. Regions in the principal ports of modern Guangdong were used for the production of pearls and a trading terminal for maritime silk between with Ancient India and the Roman Empire.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Becoming Chinese American: A History of Communities and Institutions |last=Him |first=Mark Lai |last2=Hsu |first2= Madeline |publisher=AltaMira Press |year=2004 |isbn=978-0759104587 |publication-date=May 4, 2004 |page=5}}</ref> Sinification of Nanyue was brought about by a combination of Han imperial military power, regular settlement and an influx of Han Chinese refugees, officers and garrisons, merchants, scholars, bureaucrats, fugitives, and prisoners of war.<ref>{{Cite book |title=A Short History of China and Southeast Asia: Tribute, Trade and Influence |last=Stuart-Fox |first=Martin |publisher=Allen & Unwin |year=2003 |publication-date=November 1, 2003 |page=18}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=World On Fire |last=Chua |first= Amy |publisher=Knopf Doubleday Publishing |year=2003 |isbn=978-0385721868 |pages=33}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Ethnic Chinese As Southeast Asians |last=Suryadinata |first=Leo |publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian Studies |year=1997 |page=268}}</ref> Northern and central China was a theater of imperial dynastic conflict and huge episodes of dynastic conflict sent waves of Han Chinese refugees into the south. With dynastic changes, wars, and foreign invasions, Han Chinese living in central China were forced to expand into the unfamiliar and southern barbarian regions.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Revolutions as Organizational Change: The Communist Party and Peasant Communities in South China, 1926–1934 |last= Zhang |first=Baohui |year=2015 |publication-date=December 16, 2015 |page=75}}</ref> As the number of Han Chinese immigrants into the Yue coastal regions increased, many Chinese families moved south to flee political unrest, military service, tax obligations, persecution, or sought new opportunities while bringing with them Han Chinese culture and ethics as part of the sinicization process.<ref>{{Cite paper |last=[[Rafe de Crespigny|de Crespigny]] |first=Rafe |date=June 7, 2004 |title=South China in the Han Period |url=https://openresearch-repository.anu.edu.au/html/1885/42048/southchina_han.html#_ftnref15 |journal=Australian National University Press}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=A Short History of China and Southeast Asia: Tribute, Trade and Influence |last=Stuart-Fox |first=Martin |publisher=Allen & Unwin |year=2003 |publication-date=November 1, 2003 |page=24-25}}</ref> According to one Han Chinese immigrant of the 2nd century BC: ''"The Yue cut their hair short, tattooed their body, live in bamboo groves with neither towns nor villages, possessing neither bows or arrows, nor horses or chariots."''<ref name=Hutcheon>{{cite book|last=Hutcheon|first=Robin|title=China–Yellow|year=1996|publisher=Chinese University Press|page=4|ISBN=978-962-201-725-2}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Imperial China and Its Southern Neighbours |last=Mair |first=Victor H. |last2=Kelley |first2=Liam C. |publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian Studies |year=2016 |publication-date=April 28, 2016 |page=25-33}}</ref> The difficulty of logistics and the [[malaria]]l climate in the south made the displacement and eventual sinification of the Yue a slow process.<ref>{{Cite book |title=China-Yellow |last=Hutcheon |first=Robert |publisher= The Chinese University Press |year=1996 |isbn= 978-9622017252 |page=4}}</ref> Over the same period, the Han dynasty incorporated many other border peoples such as the [[Dian Kingdom|Dian]] and assimilated them.<ref>{{Cite book |title=The Vietnam War (Twentieth Century Wars) |last=Anderson |first=David |publisher=Palgrave |year=2005 |isbn=978-0333963371}}</ref> Under the direct rule and greater efforts at sinification by the victorious Han, the territories of the Lac states were annexed and ruled directly, along with other former Yue territories to the north as provinces of the Han empire.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Culture and Customs of Vietnam |last=McLeod |first=Mark |last2= Nguyen |first2=Thi Dieu |publisher=Greenwood |year=2001 |isbn= 978-0313361135 |publication-date=June 30, 2001 |page=15-16}}</ref> |
In 111 BC, the powerful Han dynasty [[Han conquest of Nanyue|annexed]] Nanyue into the Han Empire and it was [[First Chinese domination of Vietnam|ruled as a Chinese province]] for the next several hundred years until 939 AD.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Becoming Chinese American: A History of Communities and Institutions |last=Him |first=Mark Lai |last2=Hsu |first2= Madeline |publisher=AltaMira Press |year=2004 |isbn=978-0759104587 |publication-date=May 4, 2004 |page=5}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | title = Ancient China and the Yue: Perceptions and Identities on the Southern Frontier, c.400 BCE–50 CE | given = Erica Fox | surname = Brindley | publisher = Cambridge University Press | year = 2015 | isbn = 978-1-316-35228-1| page = 95-96}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=The Vietnam War (Twentieth Century Wars) |last=Anderson |first=David |publisher=Palgrave |year=2005 |isbn=978-0333963371}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=World On Fire |last=Chua |first= Amy |publisher=Knopf Doubleday Publishing |year=2003 |isbn=978-0385721868 |pages=33}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Ethnic Chinese As Southeast Asians |last=Suryadinata |first=Leo |publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian Studies |year=1997 |page=268}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=World On Fire |last=Chua |first= Amy |publisher=Knopf Doubleday Publishing |year=2003 |isbn=978-0385721868 |pages=33}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Ethnic Chinese As Southeast Asians |last=Suryadinata |first=Leo |publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian Studies |year=1997 |page=268}}</ref> Nanyue was seen as attractive to the Han rulers as they desired to secure the area's maritime trade routes and gain access to luxury goods from the south such as pearls, incense, elephant tusks, rhinoceros horns, tortoise shells, coral, parrots, kingfishers, peacocks, and other rare items to satisfy the demands of the Han aristocracy.<ref>{{Cite book |title=A Short History of China and Southeast Asia: Tribute, Trade and Influence |last=Stuart-Fox |first=Martin |publisher=Allen & Unwin |year=2003 |publication-date=November 1, 2003 |page=24}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=World and Its Peoples: Eastern and Southern Asia |publisher= Cavendish Square Publishing |year=2008 |publication-date=September 1, 2008 |page=742}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=The Origins of Ancient Vietnam (Oxford Studies in the Archaeology of Ancient States) |last=. Kim |first= Nam C |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2015 |isbn=978-0199980888 |publication-date=November 2, 2015 |pages=251}}</ref> During the Han dynasty, [[Panyu]] was already functioning as a center for international maritime trade. Regions in the principal ports of modern Guangdong were used for the production of pearls and a trading terminal for maritime silk between with Ancient India and the Roman Empire.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Becoming Chinese American: A History of Communities and Institutions |last=Him |first=Mark Lai |last2=Hsu |first2= Madeline |publisher=AltaMira Press |year=2004 |isbn=978-0759104587 |publication-date=May 4, 2004 |page=5}}</ref> Sinification of Nanyue was brought about by a combination of Han imperial military power, regular settlement and an influx of Han Chinese refugees, officers and garrisons, merchants, scholars, bureaucrats, fugitives, and prisoners of war.<ref>{{Cite book |title=A Short History of China and Southeast Asia: Tribute, Trade and Influence |last=Stuart-Fox |first=Martin |publisher=Allen & Unwin |year=2003 |publication-date=November 1, 2003 |page=18}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=World On Fire |last=Chua |first= Amy |publisher=Knopf Doubleday Publishing |year=2003 |isbn=978-0385721868 |pages=33}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Ethnic Chinese As Southeast Asians |last=Suryadinata |first=Leo |publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian Studies |year=1997 |page=268}}</ref> Northern and central China was a theater of imperial dynastic conflict and huge episodes of dynastic conflict sent waves of Han Chinese refugees into the south. With dynastic changes, wars, and foreign invasions, Han Chinese living in central China were forced to expand into the unfamiliar and southern barbarian regions.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Revolutions as Organizational Change: The Communist Party and Peasant Communities in South China, 1926–1934 |last= Zhang |first=Baohui |year=2015 |publication-date=December 16, 2015 |page=75}}</ref> As the number of Han Chinese immigrants into the Yue coastal regions increased, many Chinese families moved south to flee political unrest, military service, tax obligations, persecution, or sought new opportunities while bringing with them Han Chinese culture and ethics as part of the sinicization process.<ref>{{Cite paper |last=[[Rafe de Crespigny|de Crespigny]] |first=Rafe |date=June 7, 2004 |title=South China in the Han Period |url=https://openresearch-repository.anu.edu.au/html/1885/42048/southchina_han.html#_ftnref15 |journal=Australian National University Press}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=A Short History of China and Southeast Asia: Tribute, Trade and Influence |last=Stuart-Fox |first=Martin |publisher=Allen & Unwin |year=2003 |publication-date=November 1, 2003 |page=24-25}}</ref> According to one Han Chinese immigrant of the 2nd century BC: ''"The Yue cut their hair short, tattooed their body, live in bamboo groves with neither towns nor villages, possessing neither bows or arrows, nor horses or chariots."''<ref name=Hutcheon>{{cite book|last=Hutcheon|first=Robin|title=China–Yellow|year=1996|publisher=Chinese University Press|page=4|ISBN=978-962-201-725-2}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Imperial China and Its Southern Neighbours |last=Mair |first=Victor H. |last2=Kelley |first2=Liam C. |publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian Studies |year=2016 |publication-date=April 28, 2016 |page=25-33}}</ref> The difficulty of logistics and the [[malaria]]l climate in the south made the displacement and eventual sinification of the Yue a slow process.<ref>{{Cite book |title=China-Yellow |last=Hutcheon |first=Robert |publisher= The Chinese University Press |year=1996 |isbn= 978-9622017252 |page=4}}</ref> Over the same period, the Han dynasty incorporated many other border peoples such as the [[Dian Kingdom|Dian]] and assimilated them.<ref>{{Cite book |title=The Vietnam War (Twentieth Century Wars) |last=Anderson |first=David |publisher=Palgrave |year=2005 |isbn=978-0333963371}}</ref> Under the direct rule and greater efforts at sinification by the victorious Han, the territories of the Lac states were annexed and ruled directly, along with other former Yue territories to the north as provinces of the Han empire.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Culture and Customs of Vietnam |last=McLeod |first=Mark |last2= Nguyen |first2=Thi Dieu |publisher=Greenwood |year=2001 |isbn= 978-0313361135 |publication-date=June 30, 2001 |page=15-16}}</ref> |
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With the political and commercial southward expansion of the Han dynasty in addition to the southward migration of the Han Chinese led to greater contact with non-Han southerners.<ref>{{Cite book |title=The Genesis of East Asia: 221 B.C. - A.D. 907 |last= Holcombe |first= Charles |publisher=University of Hawaii Press |year=2001 |isbn=978-0824824655 |publication-date=May 1, 2001 |pages=150}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Imperial China and Its Southern Neighbours |last=Mair |first=Victor H. |last2=Kelley |first2=Liam C. |publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian Studies |year=2016 |publication-date=April 28, 2016 |page=68-72}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Imperial China and Its Southern Neighbours |last=Mair |first=Victor H. |last2=Kelley |first2=Liam C. |publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian Studies |year=2016 |publication-date=April 28, 2016 |page=25-33}}</ref> The Han dynasty was motivated to expand towards the southern parts of modern China to what Han dynasty writers and local Chinese agents considered barbarian peripheral regions in part from a desire to capture the region's exotic and rare goods, the abundance of untapped natural resources as well as securing international maritime trade routes.<ref>{{Cite book |title=The Origins of Ancient Vietnam (Oxford Studies in the Archaeology of Ancient States) |last=. Kim |first= Nam C |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2015 |isbn=978-0199980888 |publication-date=November 2, 2015 |pages=251}}</ref> Han conquests brought the Chinese into contact with new [[Hua-Yi distinction|barbarian]] peoples within the empire.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania |last=West |first= Barbara A. |publisher=Facts On File |year=2008 |isbn=978-0816071098 |publication-date=December 1, 2008 |page=81}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Imperial China and Its Southern Neighbours |last=Mair |first=Victor H. |last2=Kelley |first2=Liam C. |publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian Studies |year=2016 |publication-date=April 28, 2016 |page=68-72}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=The Genesis of East Asia: 221 B.C. - A.D. 907 |last= Holcombe |first= Charles |publisher=University of Hawaii Press |year=2001 |isbn=978-0824824655 |publication-date=May 1, 2001 |pages=150}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=A Short History of China and Southeast Asia: Tribute, Trade and Influence |last=Stuart-Fox |first=Martin |publisher=Allen & Unwin |year=2003 |publication-date=November 1, 2003 |page=21}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Revolutions as Organizational Change: The Communist Party and Peasant Communities in South China, 1926–1934 |last= Zhang |first=Baohui |year=2015 |publication-date=December 16, 2015 |page=75}}</ref> During the Han Dynasty, the Chinese perspective shaped the hierarchical social order of [[Tianxia|Heaven, Human, and Earth]] where the Emperor's position that who reigned a hierarchical social world as the [[Son of Heaven]] who governed the civilized areas populated by the Han Chinese in contrast to the "barbarians", who belonged to the lowest position in the hierarchy of the Chinese social order, and all who belonged to this lowest level were considered to be inferior.<ref>{{Cite book |title=A Short History of China and Southeast Asia: Tribute, Trade and Influence |last=Stuart-Fox |first=Martin |publisher=Allen & Unwin |year=2003 |publication-date=November 1, 2003 |page=17-18}}</ref> As the Han dynasty expanded southward, Chinese civilization was spread to the southern part of modern China as the area was considered long by ancient Chinese writers a primitive and barbarian region.<ref>{{Cite book |title=The Origins of Ancient Vietnam (Oxford Studies in the Archaeology of Ancient States) |last=. Kim |first= Nam C |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2015 |isbn=978-0199980888 |publication-date=November 2, 2015 |pages=251}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania |last=West |first= Barbara A. |publisher=Facts On File |year=2008 |isbn=978-0816071098 |publication-date=December 1, 2008 |page=81}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | title = Ancient China and the Yue: Perceptions and Identities on the Southern Frontier, c.400 BCE–50 CE | given = Erica Fox | surname = Brindley | publisher = Cambridge University Press | year = 2015 | isbn = 978-1-316-35228-1| page = 236}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Pioneers of Modern China: Understanding the Inscrutable Chinese |last= Choy |first=Lee Khoon |publisher=World Scientific Publishin |year=2005 |isbn=978-9812564641 |publication-date=November 30, 2005 |page=25}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Imperial China and Its Southern Neighbours |last=Mair |first=Victor H. |last2=Kelley |first2=Liam C. |publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian Studies |year=2016 |publication-date=April 28, 2016 |page=25-33}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Imperial China and Its Southern Neighbours |last=Mair |first=Victor H. |last2=Kelley |first2=Liam C. |publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian Studies |year=2016 |publication-date=April 28, 2016 |page=68-72}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Revolutions as Organizational Change: The Communist Party and Peasant Communities in South China, 1926–1934 |last= Zhang |first=Baohui |year=2015 |publication-date=December 16, 2015 |page=75}}</ref> Continuing internal Chinese migration during the Han dynasty eventually brought all the non-Chinese Yue coastal peoples under Chinese political control and cultural influence.<ref>{{Cite book |title=A Short History of China and Southeast Asia: Tribute, Trade and Influence |last=Stuart-Fox |first=Martin |publisher=Allen & Unwin |year=2003 |publication-date=November 1, 2003 |page=18}}</ref> As the heartland of the Han Chinese was centralized around the Yellow River, all regions to the south beyond the Yangtze River were considered barbaric and distant.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Revolutions as Organizational Change: The Communist Party and Peasant Communities in South China, 1926–1934 |last= Zhang |first=Baohui |year=2015 |publication-date=December 16, 2015 |page=75}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Revolutions as Organizational Change: The Communist Party and Peasant Communities in South China, 1926–1934 |last= Zhang |first=Baohui |year=2015 |publication-date=December 16, 2015 |page=75}}</ref> Han |
With the political and commercial southward expansion of the Han dynasty in addition to the southward migration of the Han Chinese led to greater contact with non-Han southerners.<ref>{{Cite book |title=The Genesis of East Asia: 221 B.C. - A.D. 907 |last= Holcombe |first= Charles |publisher=University of Hawaii Press |year=2001 |isbn=978-0824824655 |publication-date=May 1, 2001 |pages=150}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Imperial China and Its Southern Neighbours |last=Mair |first=Victor H. |last2=Kelley |first2=Liam C. |publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian Studies |year=2016 |publication-date=April 28, 2016 |page=68-72}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Imperial China and Its Southern Neighbours |last=Mair |first=Victor H. |last2=Kelley |first2=Liam C. |publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian Studies |year=2016 |publication-date=April 28, 2016 |page=25-33}}</ref> The Han dynasty was motivated to expand towards the southern parts of modern China to what Han dynasty writers and local Chinese agents considered barbarian peripheral regions in part from a desire to capture the region's exotic and rare goods, the abundance of untapped natural resources as well as securing international maritime trade routes.<ref>{{Cite book |title=The Origins of Ancient Vietnam (Oxford Studies in the Archaeology of Ancient States) |last=. Kim |first= Nam C |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2015 |isbn=978-0199980888 |publication-date=November 2, 2015 |pages=251}}</ref> Han conquests brought the Chinese into contact with new [[Hua-Yi distinction|barbarian]] peoples within the empire.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania |last=West |first= Barbara A. |publisher=Facts On File |year=2008 |isbn=978-0816071098 |publication-date=December 1, 2008 |page=81}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Imperial China and Its Southern Neighbours |last=Mair |first=Victor H. |last2=Kelley |first2=Liam C. |publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian Studies |year=2016 |publication-date=April 28, 2016 |page=68-72}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=The Genesis of East Asia: 221 B.C. - A.D. 907 |last= Holcombe |first= Charles |publisher=University of Hawaii Press |year=2001 |isbn=978-0824824655 |publication-date=May 1, 2001 |pages=150}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=A Short History of China and Southeast Asia: Tribute, Trade and Influence |last=Stuart-Fox |first=Martin |publisher=Allen & Unwin |year=2003 |publication-date=November 1, 2003 |page=21}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Revolutions as Organizational Change: The Communist Party and Peasant Communities in South China, 1926–1934 |last= Zhang |first=Baohui |year=2015 |publication-date=December 16, 2015 |page=75}}</ref> During the Han Dynasty, the Chinese perspective shaped the hierarchical social order of [[Tianxia|Heaven, Human, and Earth]] where the Emperor's position that who reigned a hierarchical social world as the [[Son of Heaven]] who governed the civilized areas populated by the Han Chinese in contrast to the "barbarians", who belonged to the lowest position in the hierarchy of the Chinese social order, and all who belonged to this lowest level were considered to be inferior.<ref>{{Cite book |title=A Short History of China and Southeast Asia: Tribute, Trade and Influence |last=Stuart-Fox |first=Martin |publisher=Allen & Unwin |year=2003 |publication-date=November 1, 2003 |page=17-18}}</ref> As the Han dynasty expanded southward, Chinese civilization was spread to the southern part of modern China as the area was considered long by ancient Chinese writers a primitive and barbarian region.<ref>{{Cite book |title=The Origins of Ancient Vietnam (Oxford Studies in the Archaeology of Ancient States) |last=. Kim |first= Nam C |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2015 |isbn=978-0199980888 |publication-date=November 2, 2015 |pages=251}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania |last=West |first= Barbara A. |publisher=Facts On File |year=2008 |isbn=978-0816071098 |publication-date=December 1, 2008 |page=81}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | title = Ancient China and the Yue: Perceptions and Identities on the Southern Frontier, c.400 BCE–50 CE | given = Erica Fox | surname = Brindley | publisher = Cambridge University Press | year = 2015 | isbn = 978-1-316-35228-1| page = 236}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Pioneers of Modern China: Understanding the Inscrutable Chinese |last= Choy |first=Lee Khoon |publisher=World Scientific Publishin |year=2005 |isbn=978-9812564641 |publication-date=November 30, 2005 |page=25}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Imperial China and Its Southern Neighbours |last=Mair |first=Victor H. |last2=Kelley |first2=Liam C. |publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian Studies |year=2016 |publication-date=April 28, 2016 |page=25-33}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Imperial China and Its Southern Neighbours |last=Mair |first=Victor H. |last2=Kelley |first2=Liam C. |publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian Studies |year=2016 |publication-date=April 28, 2016 |page=68-72}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Revolutions as Organizational Change: The Communist Party and Peasant Communities in South China, 1926–1934 |last= Zhang |first=Baohui |year=2015 |publication-date=December 16, 2015 |page=75}}</ref> Continuing internal Chinese migration during the Han dynasty eventually brought all the non-Chinese Yue coastal peoples under Chinese political control and cultural influence.<ref>{{Cite book |title=A Short History of China and Southeast Asia: Tribute, Trade and Influence |last=Stuart-Fox |first=Martin |publisher=Allen & Unwin |year=2003 |publication-date=November 1, 2003 |page=18}}</ref> As the heartland of the Han Chinese was centralized around the Yellow River, all regions to the south beyond the Yangtze River were considered barbaric and distant.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Revolutions as Organizational Change: The Communist Party and Peasant Communities in South China, 1926–1934 |last= Zhang |first=Baohui |year=2015 |publication-date=December 16, 2015 |page=75}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Revolutions as Organizational Change: The Communist Party and Peasant Communities in South China, 1926–1934 |last= Zhang |first=Baohui |year=2015 |publication-date=December 16, 2015 |page=75}}</ref> By the time of the Eastern Han Dynasty (25-220 AD), the Han empire would have regular interaction with non-Chinese peoples such as the Yue, and the Han Chinese foisted a sinocentric worldview that purportedly considered the Han Chinese as a highly civilized and advanced people inhabiting a superior civilization, and the indigenous non-Chinese living in surrounding frontier regions of China’s they considered "barbarian".<ref>{{Cite book |title=A Short History of China and Southeast Asia: Tribute, Trade and Influence |last=Stuart-Fox |first=Martin |publisher=Allen & Unwin |year=2003 |publication-date=November 1, 2003 |page=19-22}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Torn Between America and China: Elite Perceptions and Indonesian Foreign Policy |last=Novotny |first=Daniel |publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian Studies |year=2010 |isbn=978-9814279598 |publication-date=August 23, 2010 |pages=183-184}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=China's Mongols at University: Contesting Cultural Recognition |last=Zhao |first=Zhenzhou |last2= Lee |first2=Wing On |publisher=Lexington Books |year=2010 |isbn= 978-0739134689 |publication-date=April 9, 2010 |pages=3}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Learning to Be Tibetan: The Construction of Ethnic Identity at Minzu |last=Yang |first=Miaoyan |publisher= Lexington Books |year=2017 |isbn=978-1498544634 |publication-date=March 17, 2017 |pages=7}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Clouds above the Hill: A Historical Novel of the Russo-Japanese War, |last=Ryotaro |first=Shiba |last2=Birnbaum |first2= Phyllis |publisher= Routledge |year=2015 |isbn=978-1138858947 |publication-date=January 4, 2015 |page=136}}</ref> Non-Han Chinese such as Yue were seen as a barbaric race for their perceived lack of civilization and that importing an influx of Han Chinese immigrants were seen as part of a civilizing project spearheaded by a dynastic Han imperialist enterprise to take over the land from a backward people that the Han government bureaucrats saw as an inferior periphery to the Han Chinese.<ref>{{Cite book |title=A Short History of China and Southeast Asia: Tribute, Trade and Influence |last=Stuart-Fox |first=Martin |publisher=Allen & Unwin |year=2003 |publication-date=November 1, 2003 |page=23}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Torn Between America and China: Elite Perceptions and Indonesian Foreign Policy |last=Novotny |first=Daniel |publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian Studies |year=2010 |isbn=978-9814279598 |publication-date=August 23, 2010 |pages=183-184}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Learning to Be Tibetan: The Construction of Ethnic Identity at Minzu |last=Yang |first=Miaoyan |publisher= Lexington Books |year=2017 |isbn=978-1498544634 |publication-date=March 17, 2017 |pages=7}}</ref> The newly conquered and subjugated Yue were obliged to acknowledge Chinese dominance and Han cultural superiority, along with the emperor’s cosmic status, by deferentially offering tribute and to accept the fact that a more developed and advanced group has come in and taken their place.<ref>{{Cite book |title=A Short History of China and Southeast Asia: Tribute, Trade and Influence |last=Stuart-Fox |first=Martin |publisher=Allen & Unwin |year=2003 |publication-date=November 1, 2003 |page=20-22}}</ref> |
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The development of the Han Empire's colonialism of the Baiyue was justified through [[sinocentrism]], that legitimizing aggressive expansion was a [[civilizing mission|mission]] in the face to what the Han rulers' perception of the Yue as backward, [[primitive culture|primitive]], and uncivilized [[barbarian]]s due to their lack of civilization.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Imperial China and Its Southern Neighbours |last=Mair |first=Victor H. |last2=Kelley |first2=Liam C. |publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian Studies |year=2016 |publication-date=April 28, 2016 |page=25-33}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=A Short History of China and Southeast Asia: Tribute, Trade and Influence |last=Stuart-Fox |first=Martin |publisher=Allen & Unwin |year=2003 |publication-date=November 1, 2003 |page=18}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Recent Developments in the South China Sea Dispute: The Prospect of a Joint Development Regime |last= Wu |first= Shicun |last2=Hong |first2= Nong |publisher=Routledge |year=2014 |isbn=978-0415735056 |publication-date=June 4, 2014 |page=27}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | title = Ancient China and the Yue: Perceptions and Identities on the Southern Frontier, c.400 BCE–50 CE | given = Erica Fox | surname = Brindley | publisher = Cambridge University Press | year = 2015 | isbn = 978-1-316-35228-1| page = 217}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Minority Languages, Education and Communities in China |last=Tsung |first= Linda |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |year=2009 |isbn=978-0230551480 |publication-date=April 15, 2009 |pages=37}}</ref> Early Han Chinese government officials looked down on the Yue as having an inferior culture due to their lack of cultural, technological, and economic sophistication.<ref>{{Cite book |title=The Routledge Handbook of Archaeology and Globalization |last=Hodos |first=Tamar |publisher=Routledge |year=2016 |isbn= 978-0415841306 |publication-date=December 5, 2016}}</ref> Han dynasty officials expressed scorn, prejudice and contempt towards the Yue's lack of civilization as they saw the Yue as a backward people that was to be inevitably replaced and assimilated by the more culturally superior, advanced, and developed Han Chinese.<ref>{{Cite book |title=A Short History of China and Southeast Asia: Tribute, Trade and Influence |last=Stuart-Fox |first=Martin |publisher=Allen & Unwin |year=2003 |publication-date=November 1, 2003 |page=20}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=A Short History of China and Southeast Asia: Tribute, Trade and Influence |last=Stuart-Fox |first=Martin |publisher=Allen & Unwin |year=2003 |publication-date=November 1, 2003 |page=23-24}}</ref> The Chinese as early as the Zhou dynasty were acutely aware of the difference between themselves and non-Chinese barbarians and of their own inherent superiority of Han Chinese civilization. With the Han dynasty's interaction with non-Chinese peoples such as the Yue, key elements of this view established by Han rulers was that the Han dynasty was a [[Dynasty of Heaven|celestial empire]] based on a hierarchical social world in which all were assigned their status, including non-Chinese. Han rulers affirmed the Chinese cultural view that Chinese civilization was superior and would be convinced that it would be available to less cultured peoples to recognize it along with the [[Son of Heaven|cosmic status of the emperor]].<ref>{{Cite book |title=A Short History of China and Southeast Asia: Tribute, Trade and Influence |last=Stuart-Fox |first=Martin |publisher=Allen & Unwin |year=2003 |publication-date=November 1, 2003 |page=21-22}}</ref> The Chinese made a clear distinction within their own Chinese world order between themselves as well as among the people they categorized as barbarians, especially groups such as the Yue would be inevitably colonized through Han imperialist expansion.<ref>{{Cite book |title=A Short History of China and Southeast Asia: Tribute, Trade and Influence |last=Stuart-Fox |first=Martin |publisher=Allen & Unwin |year=2003 |publication-date=November 1, 2003 |page=20}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=A Short History of China and Southeast Asia: Tribute, Trade and Influence |last=Stuart-Fox |first=Martin |publisher=Allen & Unwin |year=2003 |publication-date=November 1, 2003 |page=23-24}}</ref> Local Yue tribal chieftrains throughout the conquered regions who adopted elements of Han Chinese civilization would further legitimize the Han dynasty's colonization.<ref>{{Cite book |title=A Short History of China and Southeast Asia: Tribute, Trade and Influence |last=Stuart-Fox |first=Martin |publisher=Allen & Unwin |year=2003 |publication-date=November 1, 2003 |page=21-24}}</ref> Various indigenous Yue political identities were completely decimated by 110 BC as the Han dynasty absorbed the remnants of Nanyue into the empire. Powerful Han colonialists such as General [[Ma Yuan (Han dynasty)|Ma Yuan]] enforced the adoption of Han statutes, laws and customs in the first century AD to civilize and assimilate the conquered Yue tribes.<ref>{{cite book | title = Ancient China and the Yue: Perceptions and Identities on the Southern Frontier, c.400 BCE–50 CE | given = Erica Fox | surname = Brindley | publisher = Cambridge University Press | year = 2015 | isbn = 978-1-316-35228-1| page = 249}}</ref> Ma provided insight on how the Yue were seen as culturally distinct from the Han Chinese in terms of cultural sophistication, laws and statutes, levels of technological advancement, economic development and complexity of social stratification. Ma would later go down in Chinese history as a heroic official who brought Han Chinese civilization to the Yue.<ref>{{cite book | title = Ancient China and the Yue: Perceptions and Identities on the Southern Frontier, c.400 BCE–50 CE | given = Erica Fox | surname = Brindley | publisher = Cambridge University Press | year = 2015 | isbn = 978-1-316-35228-1| page = 236-237}}</ref> Han bureaucrats imposed Confucianism to re-educate and reform the Yue as they believed that they could be civilized and ultimately be absorbed into Chinese culture. Han Chinese bureaucrats sought to impose much of Chinese high culture onto the indigenous Yue including bureaucratic Legalist techniques and Confucian ethics, art, literature, and language. Han government administrators sought to assimilate the Yue under their authority through the establishment of Confucianist institutes and schools dedicated towards teaching of Confucian ethics, philosophies and Han Chinese morality.<ref>{{Cite paper |last=[[Rafe de Crespigny|de Crespigny]] |first=Rafe |date=June 7, 2004 |title=South China in the Han Period |url=https://openresearch-repository.anu.edu.au/html/1885/42048/southchina_han.html#_ftnref15 |journal=Australian National University Press}}</ref> Attempts by the Han dynasty to assimilate non-Han Chinese groups such as the Baiyue were recorded in the ''[[Book of Han]]''.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Minority Languages, Education and Communities in China |last=Tsung |first=Linda |publisher= Palgrave Macmillan |year=2009 |isbn=978-0230551480 |publication-place=Sydney |publication-date=March 31, 2009 |page=37}}</ref> Tribal divisions among the Yue were exploited by the Han dynasty with the Han military winning battles against the southern kingdoms and commandaries that were of geographic and strategic value to them. Han foreign policy also exploited the political turmoil among Yue leaders and enticed them with bribes and lured prospects for submitting to the Han Empire as a subordinate [[vassal state|vassal]].<ref>{{cite book | title = Ancient China and the Yue: Perceptions and Identities on the Southern Frontier, c.400 BCE–50 CE | given = Erica Fox | surname = Brindley | publisher = Cambridge University Press | year = 2015 | isbn = 978-1-316-35228-1| page = 249}}</ref> By the end of the Han dynasty, local Chinese officials described the uncivilized and primitive nature of the Yue as they were prone to fight one another.<ref>{{Cite book |title=The Routledge Handbook of Archaeology and Globalization |last=Hodos |first=Tamar |publisher=Routledge |year=2016 |isbn= 978-0415841306 |publication-date=December 5, 2016}}</ref> |
The development of the Han Empire's colonialism of the Baiyue was justified through [[sinocentrism]], that legitimizing aggressive expansion was a [[civilizing mission|mission]] in the face to what the Han rulers' perception of the Yue as backward, [[primitive culture|primitive]], and uncivilized [[barbarian]]s due to their lack of civilization.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Imperial China and Its Southern Neighbours |last=Mair |first=Victor H. |last2=Kelley |first2=Liam C. |publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian Studies |year=2016 |publication-date=April 28, 2016 |page=25-33}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=A Short History of China and Southeast Asia: Tribute, Trade and Influence |last=Stuart-Fox |first=Martin |publisher=Allen & Unwin |year=2003 |publication-date=November 1, 2003 |page=18}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Recent Developments in the South China Sea Dispute: The Prospect of a Joint Development Regime |last= Wu |first= Shicun |last2=Hong |first2= Nong |publisher=Routledge |year=2014 |isbn=978-0415735056 |publication-date=June 4, 2014 |page=27}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | title = Ancient China and the Yue: Perceptions and Identities on the Southern Frontier, c.400 BCE–50 CE | given = Erica Fox | surname = Brindley | publisher = Cambridge University Press | year = 2015 | isbn = 978-1-316-35228-1| page = 217}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Minority Languages, Education and Communities in China |last=Tsung |first= Linda |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |year=2009 |isbn=978-0230551480 |publication-date=April 15, 2009 |pages=37}}</ref> Early Han Chinese government officials looked down on the Yue as having an inferior culture due to their lack of cultural, technological, and economic sophistication.<ref>{{Cite book |title=The Routledge Handbook of Archaeology and Globalization |last=Hodos |first=Tamar |publisher=Routledge |year=2016 |isbn= 978-0415841306 |publication-date=December 5, 2016}}</ref> Han dynasty officials expressed scorn, prejudice and contempt towards the Yue's lack of civilization as they saw the Yue as a backward people that was to be inevitably replaced and assimilated by the more culturally superior, advanced, and developed Han Chinese.<ref>{{Cite book |title=A Short History of China and Southeast Asia: Tribute, Trade and Influence |last=Stuart-Fox |first=Martin |publisher=Allen & Unwin |year=2003 |publication-date=November 1, 2003 |page=20}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=A Short History of China and Southeast Asia: Tribute, Trade and Influence |last=Stuart-Fox |first=Martin |publisher=Allen & Unwin |year=2003 |publication-date=November 1, 2003 |page=23-24}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Torn Between America and China: Elite Perceptions and Indonesian Foreign Policy |last=Novotny |first=Daniel |publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian Studies |year=2010 |isbn=978-9814279598 |publication-date=August 23, 2010 |pages=183-184}}</ref> The Chinese as early as the Zhou dynasty were acutely aware of the difference between themselves and non-Chinese barbarians and of their own inherent superiority of Han Chinese civilization. With the Han dynasty's interaction with non-Chinese peoples such as the Yue, key elements of this view established by Han rulers was that the Han dynasty was a [[Dynasty of Heaven|celestial empire]] based on a hierarchical social world in which all were assigned their status, including non-Chinese. Han rulers affirmed the Chinese cultural view that Chinese civilization was superior and would be convinced that it would be available to less cultured peoples to recognize it along with the [[Son of Heaven|cosmic status of the emperor]].<ref>{{Cite book |title=A Short History of China and Southeast Asia: Tribute, Trade and Influence |last=Stuart-Fox |first=Martin |publisher=Allen & Unwin |year=2003 |publication-date=November 1, 2003 |page=21-22}}</ref> The Chinese made a clear distinction within their own Chinese world order between themselves as well as among the people they categorized as barbarians, especially groups such as the Yue would be inevitably colonized through Han imperialist expansion.<ref>{{Cite book |title=A Short History of China and Southeast Asia: Tribute, Trade and Influence |last=Stuart-Fox |first=Martin |publisher=Allen & Unwin |year=2003 |publication-date=November 1, 2003 |page=20}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=A Short History of China and Southeast Asia: Tribute, Trade and Influence |last=Stuart-Fox |first=Martin |publisher=Allen & Unwin |year=2003 |publication-date=November 1, 2003 |page=23-24}}</ref> Local Yue tribal chieftrains throughout the conquered regions who adopted elements of Han Chinese civilization would further legitimize the Han dynasty's colonization.<ref>{{Cite book |title=A Short History of China and Southeast Asia: Tribute, Trade and Influence |last=Stuart-Fox |first=Martin |publisher=Allen & Unwin |year=2003 |publication-date=November 1, 2003 |page=21-24}}</ref> Various indigenous Yue political identities were completely decimated by 110 BC as the Han dynasty absorbed the remnants of Nanyue into the empire. Powerful Han colonialists such as General [[Ma Yuan (Han dynasty)|Ma Yuan]] enforced the adoption of Han statutes, laws and customs in the first century AD to civilize and assimilate the conquered Yue tribes.<ref>{{cite book | title = Ancient China and the Yue: Perceptions and Identities on the Southern Frontier, c.400 BCE–50 CE | given = Erica Fox | surname = Brindley | publisher = Cambridge University Press | year = 2015 | isbn = 978-1-316-35228-1| page = 249}}</ref> Ma provided insight on how the Yue were seen as culturally distinct from the Han Chinese in terms of cultural sophistication, laws and statutes, levels of technological advancement, economic development and complexity of social stratification. Ma would later go down in Chinese history as a heroic official who brought Han Chinese civilization to the Yue.<ref>{{cite book | title = Ancient China and the Yue: Perceptions and Identities on the Southern Frontier, c.400 BCE–50 CE | given = Erica Fox | surname = Brindley | publisher = Cambridge University Press | year = 2015 | isbn = 978-1-316-35228-1| page = 236-237}}</ref> Han bureaucrats imposed Confucianism to re-educate and reform the Yue as they believed that they could be civilized and ultimately be absorbed into Chinese culture. Han Chinese bureaucrats sought to impose much of Chinese high culture onto the indigenous Yue including bureaucratic Legalist techniques and Confucian ethics, art, literature, and language. Han government administrators sought to assimilate the Yue under their authority through the establishment of Confucianist institutes and schools dedicated towards teaching of Confucian ethics, philosophies and Han Chinese morality.<ref>{{Cite paper |last=[[Rafe de Crespigny|de Crespigny]] |first=Rafe |date=June 7, 2004 |title=South China in the Han Period |url=https://openresearch-repository.anu.edu.au/html/1885/42048/southchina_han.html#_ftnref15 |journal=Australian National University Press}}</ref> Attempts by the Han dynasty to assimilate non-Han Chinese groups such as the Baiyue were recorded in the ''[[Book of Han]]''.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Minority Languages, Education and Communities in China |last=Tsung |first=Linda |publisher= Palgrave Macmillan |year=2009 |isbn=978-0230551480 |publication-place=Sydney |publication-date=March 31, 2009 |page=37}}</ref> Tribal divisions among the Yue were exploited by the Han dynasty with the Han military winning battles against the southern kingdoms and commandaries that were of geographic and strategic value to them. Han foreign policy also exploited the political turmoil among Yue leaders and enticed them with bribes and lured prospects for submitting to the Han Empire as a subordinate [[vassal state|vassal]].<ref>{{cite book | title = Ancient China and the Yue: Perceptions and Identities on the Southern Frontier, c.400 BCE–50 CE | given = Erica Fox | surname = Brindley | publisher = Cambridge University Press | year = 2015 | isbn = 978-1-316-35228-1| page = 249}}</ref> By the end of the Han dynasty, local Chinese officials described the uncivilized and primitive nature of the Yue as they were prone to fight one another.<ref>{{Cite book |title=The Routledge Handbook of Archaeology and Globalization |last=Hodos |first=Tamar |publisher=Routledge |year=2016 |isbn= 978-0415841306 |publication-date=December 5, 2016}}</ref> |
||
As the number of Han Chinese migrants intensified following the Han Empire's annexation of Nanyue, the Yue were gradually displaced and driven out into poorer land on the hills and into the mountains.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Becoming Chinese American: A History of Communities and Institutions |last=Him |first=Mark Lai |last2=Hsu |first2= Madeline |publisher=AltaMira Press |year=2004 |isbn=978-0759104587 |publication-date=May 4, 2004 |page=8}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Archaeological Landscape Evolution: The Mariana Islands in the Asia-Pacific Region |last=Carson |first=Mike T. |publisher=: Springer |year=2016 |isbn=978-3319313993 |publication-date=June 18, 2016 |pages=23}}</ref><ref name="Wiens1967">{{cite book|last=Wiens|first=Herold Jacob|title=Han Chinese expansion in South China|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qMomAQAAMAAJ|year=1967|publisher=Shoe String Press|page=276}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=China-Yellow |last=Hutcheon |first=Robert |publisher= The Chinese University Press |year=1996 |isbn= 978-9622017252 |page=4-5}}</ref> Han Chinese military garrisons showed little patience with the aboriginal Yue tribes who resisted the influx of Han Chinese immigrants, driving them out to the coastal extremities and the highland areas where they became marginal scavengers and outcasts.<ref>{{Cite book |title=China-Yellow |last=Hutcheon |first=Robert |publisher= The Chinese University Press |year=1996 |isbn= 978-9622017252 |page=5}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | title = Ancient China and the Yue: Perceptions and Identities on the Southern Frontier, c.400 BCE–50 CE | given = Erica Fox | surname = Brindley | publisher = Cambridge University Press | year = 2015 | isbn = 978-1-316-35228-1| page = 217}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Minority Languages, Education and Communities in China |last=Tsung |first= Linda |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |year=2009 |isbn=978-0230551480 |publication-date=April 15, 2009 |pages=37}}</ref> Unlike the nomadic peoples of [[Central Asia]], such as the [[Xiongnu]] or the [[Xianbei]], the Yue never posed any serious threat to the Han Empire's colonial expansion as no foreign kingdom ever posed an equivalent military threat to the Han empire than the nomadic steppe peoples of the north.<ref>{{Cite book |title=A Short History of China and Southeast Asia: Tribute, Trade and Influence |last=Stuart-Fox |first=Martin |publisher=Allen & Unwin |year=2003 |publication-date=November 1, 2003 |page=21}}</ref> Displaced Yue tribes often staged sneak attacks and small-scale raids or attacks on Chinese settlements termed "rebellions" by traditional historians but were eventually driven out and suppressed by the strong action of the Han dynasty's military superiority.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Archaeological Landscape Evolution: The Mariana Islands in the Asia-Pacific Region |last=Carson |first=Mike T. |publisher=: Springer |year=2016 |isbn=978-3319313993 |publication-date=June 18, 2016 |pages=23}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Culture and Customs of Vietnam |last=McLeod |first=Mark |last2= Nguyen |first2=Thi Dieu |publisher=Greenwood |year=2001 |isbn= 978-0313361135 |publication-date=June 30, 2001 |page=15-16}}</ref> Most Yue peoples were eventually absorbed and assimilated by the Han empire while the remnants of the ancient Yue continue to live in the modern provinces [[Zhejiang]] and [[Guangdong]].<ref>{{Cite book |title=Becoming Chinese American: A History of Communities and Institutions |last=Him |first=Mark Lai |last2=Hsu |first2= Madeline |publisher=AltaMira Press |year=2004 |isbn=978-0759104587 |publication-date=May 4, 2004 |page=8}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Modern Cantonese Phonology |last=Benedict |first= Paul K. |last2= Bauer |first2=Robert |publisher=Mouton de Gruyter |year=1997 |isbn= 978-3110148930 |publication-date=June 10, 1997 |page=xxxix}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Reconstructing Ancient Korean History: The Formation of Korean-ness in the Shadow of History |last= Xu |first=Stella |publisher= Lexington Books |year=2016 |isbn=978-1498521444 |publication-date=May 12, 2016 |pages=28}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.ca/books?id=YcXRAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA98&dq=baiyue&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiQ2Yiq2LfVAhXr7IMKHc1zD9U4FBDoAQhUMAk#v=onepage&q=bai%20yue&f=false |title=Cancer Virus: The story of Epstein-Barr Virus |publisher=Oxford University Press |year= April 1, 2014 |isbn=978-0199653119 |pages=98}}</ref><ref>[http://comonca.org.cn/LH/Doc/D09.pdf 上海本地人源流主成分分析] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110707050343/http://comonca.org.cn/LH/Doc/D09.pdf |date=2011-07-07 }}</ref><ref>[http://comonca.org.cn/LH/Doc/D12.pdf 上海歷史上的民族變遷] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110707050519/http://comonca.org.cn/LH/Doc/D12.pdf |date=2011-07-07 }}</ref> Speakers of the [[Kam–Tai languages]] - in modern China such as the [[Zhuang people|Zhuang]], [[Bouyei people|Buxqyaix]], [[Dai people|Dai]], [[Sui people|Aisui]], [[Kam people|Kam]], [[Li people|Hlai]], [[Mulao people|Mulam]], [[Maonan people|Anan]], [[Ong Be language|Ong Be]], [[Thai people|Thai]], [[Lao people|Lao]], and [[Shan people|Shan]] - retain their ethnic identities.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Becoming Chinese American: A History of Communities and Institutions |last=Him |first=Mark Lai |last2=Hsu |first2= Madeline |publisher=AltaMira Press |year=2004 |isbn=978-0759104587 |publication-date=May 4, 2004 |page=8}}</ref> |
As the number of Han Chinese migrants intensified following the Han Empire's annexation of Nanyue, the Yue were gradually displaced and driven out into poorer land on the hills and into the mountains.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Becoming Chinese American: A History of Communities and Institutions |last=Him |first=Mark Lai |last2=Hsu |first2= Madeline |publisher=AltaMira Press |year=2004 |isbn=978-0759104587 |publication-date=May 4, 2004 |page=8}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Archaeological Landscape Evolution: The Mariana Islands in the Asia-Pacific Region |last=Carson |first=Mike T. |publisher=: Springer |year=2016 |isbn=978-3319313993 |publication-date=June 18, 2016 |pages=23}}</ref><ref name="Wiens1967">{{cite book|last=Wiens|first=Herold Jacob|title=Han Chinese expansion in South China|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qMomAQAAMAAJ|year=1967|publisher=Shoe String Press|page=276}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=China-Yellow |last=Hutcheon |first=Robert |publisher= The Chinese University Press |year=1996 |isbn= 978-9622017252 |page=4-5}}</ref> Han Chinese military garrisons showed little patience with the aboriginal Yue tribes who resisted the influx of Han Chinese immigrants, driving them out to the coastal extremities and the highland areas where they became marginal scavengers and outcasts.<ref>{{Cite book |title=China-Yellow |last=Hutcheon |first=Robert |publisher= The Chinese University Press |year=1996 |isbn= 978-9622017252 |page=5}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | title = Ancient China and the Yue: Perceptions and Identities on the Southern Frontier, c.400 BCE–50 CE | given = Erica Fox | surname = Brindley | publisher = Cambridge University Press | year = 2015 | isbn = 978-1-316-35228-1| page = 217}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Minority Languages, Education and Communities in China |last=Tsung |first= Linda |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |year=2009 |isbn=978-0230551480 |publication-date=April 15, 2009 |pages=37}}</ref> Unlike the nomadic peoples of [[Central Asia]], such as the [[Xiongnu]] or the [[Xianbei]], the Yue never posed any serious threat to the Han Empire's colonial expansion as no foreign kingdom ever posed an equivalent military threat to the Han empire than the nomadic steppe peoples of the north.<ref>{{Cite book |title=A Short History of China and Southeast Asia: Tribute, Trade and Influence |last=Stuart-Fox |first=Martin |publisher=Allen & Unwin |year=2003 |publication-date=November 1, 2003 |page=21}}</ref> Displaced Yue tribes often staged sneak attacks and small-scale raids or attacks on Chinese settlements termed "rebellions" by traditional historians but were eventually driven out and suppressed by the strong action of the Han dynasty's military superiority.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Archaeological Landscape Evolution: The Mariana Islands in the Asia-Pacific Region |last=Carson |first=Mike T. |publisher=: Springer |year=2016 |isbn=978-3319313993 |publication-date=June 18, 2016 |pages=23}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Culture and Customs of Vietnam |last=McLeod |first=Mark |last2= Nguyen |first2=Thi Dieu |publisher=Greenwood |year=2001 |isbn= 978-0313361135 |publication-date=June 30, 2001 |page=15-16}}</ref> Most Yue peoples were eventually absorbed and assimilated by the Han empire while the remnants of the ancient Yue continue to live in the modern provinces [[Zhejiang]] and [[Guangdong]].<ref>{{Cite book |title=Becoming Chinese American: A History of Communities and Institutions |last=Him |first=Mark Lai |last2=Hsu |first2= Madeline |publisher=AltaMira Press |year=2004 |isbn=978-0759104587 |publication-date=May 4, 2004 |page=8}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Modern Cantonese Phonology |last=Benedict |first= Paul K. |last2= Bauer |first2=Robert |publisher=Mouton de Gruyter |year=1997 |isbn= 978-3110148930 |publication-date=June 10, 1997 |page=xxxix}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Reconstructing Ancient Korean History: The Formation of Korean-ness in the Shadow of History |last= Xu |first=Stella |publisher= Lexington Books |year=2016 |isbn=978-1498521444 |publication-date=May 12, 2016 |pages=28}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.ca/books?id=YcXRAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA98&dq=baiyue&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiQ2Yiq2LfVAhXr7IMKHc1zD9U4FBDoAQhUMAk#v=onepage&q=bai%20yue&f=false |title=Cancer Virus: The story of Epstein-Barr Virus |publisher=Oxford University Press |year= April 1, 2014 |isbn=978-0199653119 |pages=98}}</ref><ref>[http://comonca.org.cn/LH/Doc/D09.pdf 上海本地人源流主成分分析] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110707050343/http://comonca.org.cn/LH/Doc/D09.pdf |date=2011-07-07 }}</ref><ref>[http://comonca.org.cn/LH/Doc/D12.pdf 上海歷史上的民族變遷] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110707050519/http://comonca.org.cn/LH/Doc/D12.pdf |date=2011-07-07 }}</ref> Speakers of the [[Kam–Tai languages]] - in modern China such as the [[Zhuang people|Zhuang]], [[Bouyei people|Buxqyaix]], [[Dai people|Dai]], [[Sui people|Aisui]], [[Kam people|Kam]], [[Li people|Hlai]], [[Mulao people|Mulam]], [[Maonan people|Anan]], [[Ong Be language|Ong Be]], [[Thai people|Thai]], [[Lao people|Lao]], and [[Shan people|Shan]] - retain their ethnic identities.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Becoming Chinese American: A History of Communities and Institutions |last=Him |first=Mark Lai |last2=Hsu |first2= Madeline |publisher=AltaMira Press |year=2004 |isbn=978-0759104587 |publication-date=May 4, 2004 |page=8}}</ref> |
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| Vietnamese | Bách Việt | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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| Zhuang | Bakyez | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
The Baiyue, Hundred Yue or Yue were an ancient conglomeration of indigenous non-Chinese hill tribes who inhabited what is now Southern China and Northern Vietnam between the first millennium BC and the first millennium AD.[1][2][3][4][5] In the Warring States period, the word "Yue" referred to the State of Yue in Zhejiang. The later kingdoms of Minyue in Fujian and Nanyue in Guangdong were both considered Yue states. Although the Yue had an inchoate knowledge of agriculture and shipbuilding, Han dynasty Chinese writers depicted the Yue as tribal backward barbarians who had tattoos, lived in primitive conditions, and lacked basic technology as swords, bows, arrows, horses and chariots.[6][7][8][9]
The Yue were gradually displaced and assimilated into Chinese culture as the Han empire expanded into what is now Southern China and Northern Vietnam during the first half of the first millennium AD.[10][11][12] Many modern southern Chinese dialects bear traces of substrate languages originally spoken by the ancient Yue. Variations of the name are still used for the name of modern Vietnam, in Zhejiang-related names including Yue Opera, and in the abbreviation for Guangdong.
Names
The modern term "Yue" (Chinese: 越 or 粵; pinyin: Yuè; Cantonese Yale: Yuht; Wade–Giles: Yüeh4; Vietnamese: Việt; Zhuang: Vot; Early Middle Chinese: Wuat) comes from Old Chinese *wjat.[13] It was first written using the pictograph "戉" for an axe (a homophone), in oracle bone and bronze inscriptions of the late Shang dynasty (c. 1200 BC), and later as "越".[14] At that time it referred to a people or chieftain to the northwest of the Shang.[4] In the early 8th century BC, a tribe on the middle Yangtze were called the Yángyuè, a term later used for peoples further south.[4] Between the 7th and 4th centuries BC "Yue" referred to the State of Yue in the lower Yangtze basin and its people.[4][14]
The term "Hundred Yue" first appears in the book Lüshi Chunqiu compiled around 239 BC.[15] It was used as a collective term for the non-Chinese populations of south and southwest China and northern Vietnam.[4]
Ancient texts mention a number of Yue states or groups. Most of these names survived into early imperial times:
| Chinese | Mandarin | Cantonese (Jyutping) | Zhuang | Vietnamese | Literal English trans.: |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 於越/于越 | Yūyuè | jyu1 jyut6 | Ư Việt | Yue | |
| 揚越 | Yángyuè | joeng4 jyut6 | Dương Việt | Yang Yue | |
| 閩越 | Mǐnyuè | man5 jyut6 | Mân Việt | Min Yue | |
| 夜郎 | Yèláng | je6 long4 | Dạ Lang | Yelang | |
| 南越 | Nányuè | naam4 jyut6 | Namzyied | Nam Việt | Southern Yue |
| 山越 | Shānyuè | saan1 jyut6 | Sơn Việt | Mountain Yue | |
| 雒越 | Luòyuè | lok6 jyut6 | Lạc Việt | Sea Bird Yue | |
| 甌越 | Ōuyuè | au1 jyut6 | Âu Việt | Ou Yue |
Peoples of the lower Yangtze
In the 5th millennium BC, the lower Yangtze area was already a major population centre, occupied by the Hemudu and Majiabang cultures, who were among the earliest cultivators of rice.
By the 3rd millennium BC, the successor Liangzhu culture shows some influence from the Longshan-era cultures due to trade and commerce.[16] However, a high frequency of O1 was found in Liangzhu culture sites, linking it to modern Austronesian and Daic populations.[17]
From the 9th century BC, two northern Yue peoples, the Gou-Wu and Yu-Yue, were increasingly influenced by their Chinese neighbours to their north. These two states were based in the areas of what is now southern Jiangsu and northern Zhejiang, respectively. Their aristocratic elite learned the written Chinese language and adopted Chinese political institutions and military technology. Traditional accounts attribute the cultural change to Taibo, a Zhou prince who had self-exiled to the south. The marshy lands of the south gave Gou-Wu and Yu-Yue unique characteristics. They did not engage in extensive agrarian agriculture, relying instead more heavily on aquaculture. Water transport was paramount in the south, so the two states became advanced in shipbuilding and developed riverine warfare technology. They were also known for their fine swords.
In the Spring and Autumn period, the two states, now called Wu and Yue, were becoming increasingly involved in Chinese politics. According to the Han dynasty historian Sima Qian, King Goujian of Yue was descended from the legendary Yu the Great.[18]
In 512 BC, Wu launched a large expedition against the large state of Chu, based in the Middle Yangtze River. A similar campaign in 506 succeeded in sacking the Chu capital Ying. Also in that year, war broke out between Wu and Yue and continued with breaks for the next three decades. In 473 BC, Goujian finally conquered Wu and was acknowledged by the northern states of Qi and Jin. In 333 BC, Yue was in turn conquered by Chu.[19]
After the fall of Yue, the ruling family moved south to what is now Fujian and established the Minyue kingdom.
The Yayoi people, the ancient people of Wa, in Japan are genetically and archeologically linked to the early people of the Yangtze-river and share several cultural aspects with them.[20]
Sinification and displacement
The "Treatise of Geography" in the Book of Han describes the Yue lands as stretching from Shaoxing on the southern shore of Hangzhou Bay to Jiaozhi in modern north Vietnam.[19] Throughout the Han dynasty era, two groups of Yue were identified, that of the Nanyue in the far south, who lived mainly in the area of what is now the modern Chinese provinces Guangdong, Guangxi, and northern parts of modern Vietnam; and that of the Minyue to the southeast, centered on the Min River in the modern Fujian province.
After the unification of China by Emperor Qin Shi Huang, the former Wu and Yue states were absorbed into the nascent Qin empire. The Qin armies also advanced south along the Xiang River to modern Guangdong and set up commanderies along the main communication routes. Motivated by the region's vast land and valuable exotic products, Emperor Qin Shi Huang secured his boundaries to the north with a fraction of his large army, and sent the majority south to seize the land and profit from it while attempting to subdue the barbarian Yue tribes of the southern provinces.[21][22][23] The Han dynasty historian Sima Qian in his book Records of the Grand Historian wrote: "In the south he seized the land of the hundred tribes of the Yue and made of it Guilin and Xiang provinces, and the lords of the hundred Yue bowed their heads, hung halters from their necks, and pleaded for their lives with the lowest officials of the Qin."[24] By 214 BC, Guangdong, Guangxi, and northern Vietnam were subjugated and annexed into the Qin empire.[25] Emperor Qin Shi Huang imposed sinification by importing Han Chinese settlers to displace, weaken, and ultimately eliminate the indigenous Yue culture and sense of Yue ethnic consciousness to prevent nationalism that could potentially lead to the desire of independent states.[26] To exercise even greater control to sinicize and displace the indigenous Yue, Qin Shi Huang forced the settlement of thousands of Han Chinese immigrants, many of which were convicted felons and exiles to move from northern China to the newly annexed Qin domains.[27]
In 208 BC, the Qin Chinese renegade general Zhao Tuo defeated An Dương Vương, the king of Âu Lạc in north Vietnam and conquered the Âu Lạc Kingdom, an ancient Vietnamese state situated in the northern mountains of modern Vietnam populated by the ancient Lạc Việt and Âu Việt.[28][29] He annexed Âu Lạc into the Qin Empire the following and declared himself the emperor of Nanyue.[30] Towards the end of the Qin dynasty, many peasant rebellions led Zhao Tuo to claim independence from the imperial government and declared himself the emperor of Nanyue in 207 BC. Zhao led the peasants to rise up against the much despised Qinshi Emperor.[31] Zhao opened up Guangxi and southern China to the immigration of hundreds of thousands of Han Chinese and the kingdom of Nanyue was established after the collapse of the Qin dynasty in 204 BC.[32] At its height, Nanyue was the strongest of the Yue states, with Zhao declaring himself emperor and receiving allegiance from the neighboring kings.[33] The dominant ethnicities of this kingdom were the Han Chinese and Yue, who held all the most important positions in the kingdom.[34] Unlike Emperor Qin Shi Huang, Zhao respected Yue customs, rallied their local rulers, and forced local chiefs to be controlled by central government administrators. Under Zhao's rule, he encouraged Han Chinese settlers to intermarry with the indigenous Yue and embarked on a sinicization campaign that promoted Han Chinese culture and customs to assimilate the Yue tribes.[35][36]
In 111 BC, the powerful Han dynasty annexed Nanyue into the Han Empire and it was ruled as a Chinese province for the next several hundred years until 939 AD.[37][38][39][40][41][42][43] Nanyue was seen as attractive to the Han rulers as they desired to secure the area's maritime trade routes and gain access to luxury goods from the south such as pearls, incense, elephant tusks, rhinoceros horns, tortoise shells, coral, parrots, kingfishers, peacocks, and other rare items to satisfy the demands of the Han aristocracy.[44][45][46] During the Han dynasty, Panyu was already functioning as a center for international maritime trade. Regions in the principal ports of modern Guangdong were used for the production of pearls and a trading terminal for maritime silk between with Ancient India and the Roman Empire.[47] Sinification of Nanyue was brought about by a combination of Han imperial military power, regular settlement and an influx of Han Chinese refugees, officers and garrisons, merchants, scholars, bureaucrats, fugitives, and prisoners of war.[48][49][50] Northern and central China was a theater of imperial dynastic conflict and huge episodes of dynastic conflict sent waves of Han Chinese refugees into the south. With dynastic changes, wars, and foreign invasions, Han Chinese living in central China were forced to expand into the unfamiliar and southern barbarian regions.[51] As the number of Han Chinese immigrants into the Yue coastal regions increased, many Chinese families moved south to flee political unrest, military service, tax obligations, persecution, or sought new opportunities while bringing with them Han Chinese culture and ethics as part of the sinicization process.[52][53] According to one Han Chinese immigrant of the 2nd century BC: "The Yue cut their hair short, tattooed their body, live in bamboo groves with neither towns nor villages, possessing neither bows or arrows, nor horses or chariots."[6][54] The difficulty of logistics and the malarial climate in the south made the displacement and eventual sinification of the Yue a slow process.[55] Over the same period, the Han dynasty incorporated many other border peoples such as the Dian and assimilated them.[56] Under the direct rule and greater efforts at sinification by the victorious Han, the territories of the Lac states were annexed and ruled directly, along with other former Yue territories to the north as provinces of the Han empire.[57]
With the political and commercial southward expansion of the Han dynasty in addition to the southward migration of the Han Chinese led to greater contact with non-Han southerners.[58][59][60] The Han dynasty was motivated to expand towards the southern parts of modern China to what Han dynasty writers and local Chinese agents considered barbarian peripheral regions in part from a desire to capture the region's exotic and rare goods, the abundance of untapped natural resources as well as securing international maritime trade routes.[61] Han conquests brought the Chinese into contact with new barbarian peoples within the empire.[62][63][64][65][66] During the Han Dynasty, the Chinese perspective shaped the hierarchical social order of Heaven, Human, and Earth where the Emperor's position that who reigned a hierarchical social world as the Son of Heaven who governed the civilized areas populated by the Han Chinese in contrast to the "barbarians", who belonged to the lowest position in the hierarchy of the Chinese social order, and all who belonged to this lowest level were considered to be inferior.[67] As the Han dynasty expanded southward, Chinese civilization was spread to the southern part of modern China as the area was considered long by ancient Chinese writers a primitive and barbarian region.[68][69][70][71][72][73][74] Continuing internal Chinese migration during the Han dynasty eventually brought all the non-Chinese Yue coastal peoples under Chinese political control and cultural influence.[75] As the heartland of the Han Chinese was centralized around the Yellow River, all regions to the south beyond the Yangtze River were considered barbaric and distant.[76][77] By the time of the Eastern Han Dynasty (25-220 AD), the Han empire would have regular interaction with non-Chinese peoples such as the Yue, and the Han Chinese foisted a sinocentric worldview that purportedly considered the Han Chinese as a highly civilized and advanced people inhabiting a superior civilization, and the indigenous non-Chinese living in surrounding frontier regions of China’s they considered "barbarian".[78][79][80][81][82] Non-Han Chinese such as Yue were seen as a barbaric race for their perceived lack of civilization and that importing an influx of Han Chinese immigrants were seen as part of a civilizing project spearheaded by a dynastic Han imperialist enterprise to take over the land from a backward people that the Han government bureaucrats saw as an inferior periphery to the Han Chinese.[83][84][85] The newly conquered and subjugated Yue were obliged to acknowledge Chinese dominance and Han cultural superiority, along with the emperor’s cosmic status, by deferentially offering tribute and to accept the fact that a more developed and advanced group has come in and taken their place.[86]
The development of the Han Empire's colonialism of the Baiyue was justified through sinocentrism, that legitimizing aggressive expansion was a mission in the face to what the Han rulers' perception of the Yue as backward, primitive, and uncivilized barbarians due to their lack of civilization.[87][88][89][90][91] Early Han Chinese government officials looked down on the Yue as having an inferior culture due to their lack of cultural, technological, and economic sophistication.[92] Han dynasty officials expressed scorn, prejudice and contempt towards the Yue's lack of civilization as they saw the Yue as a backward people that was to be inevitably replaced and assimilated by the more culturally superior, advanced, and developed Han Chinese.[93][94][95] The Chinese as early as the Zhou dynasty were acutely aware of the difference between themselves and non-Chinese barbarians and of their own inherent superiority of Han Chinese civilization. With the Han dynasty's interaction with non-Chinese peoples such as the Yue, key elements of this view established by Han rulers was that the Han dynasty was a celestial empire based on a hierarchical social world in which all were assigned their status, including non-Chinese. Han rulers affirmed the Chinese cultural view that Chinese civilization was superior and would be convinced that it would be available to less cultured peoples to recognize it along with the cosmic status of the emperor.[96] The Chinese made a clear distinction within their own Chinese world order between themselves as well as among the people they categorized as barbarians, especially groups such as the Yue would be inevitably colonized through Han imperialist expansion.[97][98] Local Yue tribal chieftrains throughout the conquered regions who adopted elements of Han Chinese civilization would further legitimize the Han dynasty's colonization.[99] Various indigenous Yue political identities were completely decimated by 110 BC as the Han dynasty absorbed the remnants of Nanyue into the empire. Powerful Han colonialists such as General Ma Yuan enforced the adoption of Han statutes, laws and customs in the first century AD to civilize and assimilate the conquered Yue tribes.[100] Ma provided insight on how the Yue were seen as culturally distinct from the Han Chinese in terms of cultural sophistication, laws and statutes, levels of technological advancement, economic development and complexity of social stratification. Ma would later go down in Chinese history as a heroic official who brought Han Chinese civilization to the Yue.[101] Han bureaucrats imposed Confucianism to re-educate and reform the Yue as they believed that they could be civilized and ultimately be absorbed into Chinese culture. Han Chinese bureaucrats sought to impose much of Chinese high culture onto the indigenous Yue including bureaucratic Legalist techniques and Confucian ethics, art, literature, and language. Han government administrators sought to assimilate the Yue under their authority through the establishment of Confucianist institutes and schools dedicated towards teaching of Confucian ethics, philosophies and Han Chinese morality.[102] Attempts by the Han dynasty to assimilate non-Han Chinese groups such as the Baiyue were recorded in the Book of Han.[103] Tribal divisions among the Yue were exploited by the Han dynasty with the Han military winning battles against the southern kingdoms and commandaries that were of geographic and strategic value to them. Han foreign policy also exploited the political turmoil among Yue leaders and enticed them with bribes and lured prospects for submitting to the Han Empire as a subordinate vassal.[104] By the end of the Han dynasty, local Chinese officials described the uncivilized and primitive nature of the Yue as they were prone to fight one another.[105]
As the number of Han Chinese migrants intensified following the Han Empire's annexation of Nanyue, the Yue were gradually displaced and driven out into poorer land on the hills and into the mountains.[106][107][11][108] Han Chinese military garrisons showed little patience with the aboriginal Yue tribes who resisted the influx of Han Chinese immigrants, driving them out to the coastal extremities and the highland areas where they became marginal scavengers and outcasts.[109][110][111] Unlike the nomadic peoples of Central Asia, such as the Xiongnu or the Xianbei, the Yue never posed any serious threat to the Han Empire's colonial expansion as no foreign kingdom ever posed an equivalent military threat to the Han empire than the nomadic steppe peoples of the north.[112] Displaced Yue tribes often staged sneak attacks and small-scale raids or attacks on Chinese settlements termed "rebellions" by traditional historians but were eventually driven out and suppressed by the strong action of the Han dynasty's military superiority.[113][114] Most Yue peoples were eventually absorbed and assimilated by the Han empire while the remnants of the ancient Yue continue to live in the modern provinces Zhejiang and Guangdong.[115][116][117][118][119][120] Speakers of the Kam–Tai languages - in modern China such as the Zhuang, Buxqyaix, Dai, Aisui, Kam, Hlai, Mulam, Anan, Ong Be, Thai, Lao, and Shan - retain their ethnic identities.[121]
Language
Knowledge of Yue speech is limited to fragmentary references and possible loanwords in other languages, principally Chinese. The longest is the Song of the Yue Boatman, a short song transcribed phonetically in Chinese characters in 528 BC and included, with a Chinese version, in the Garden of Stories compiled by Liu Xiang five centuries later.[122]
There is some disagreement about the languages they spoke, with candidates drawn from the non-Sinitic language families still represented in areas of southern China, Tai–Kadai, Hmong–Mien and Austroasiatic. Chinese, Tai–Kadai, Hmong–Mien and the Vietic branch of Austroasiatic have similar tone systems, syllable structure, grammatical features and lack of inflection, but these features are believed have spread by diffusion across the Mainland Southeast Asia linguistic area, rather than indicating common descent.[123]
Jerry Norman and Mei Tsu-Lin presented evidence that at least some Yue spoke an Austroasiatic language:[14][124][125]
- Zheng Xuan (127–200 AD) wrote that 扎 (middle Chinese: "jaat", modern Mandarin Chinese zā, modern Sino-Vietnamese: "trát") was the word used by the Yue people (越人) to mean "die". Norman and Mei reconstruct this word as OC *tsət and relate it to Austroasiatic words with the same meaning, such as Vietnamese chết and Mon chɒt.
- According to the Shuowen Jiezi (100 AD), "In Nanyue, the word for dog is (Chinese: 撓獀; pinyin: náosōu; EMC: nuw-ʂuw)", possibly related to other Austroasiatic terms. Sōu is "hunt" in modern Chinese.
- The early Chinese name for the Yangtze (Chinese: 江; pinyin: jiāng; EMC: kœ:ŋ; OC: *kroŋ; Cantonese: "kong") was later extended to a general word for "river" in south China. Norman and Mei suggest that the word is cognate with Vietnamese sông (from *krong) and Mon kruŋ "river".
They also provide evidence of an Austroasiatic substrate in the vocabulary of Min Chinese.[14][126] Norman and Mei's hypothesis is widely quoted, but has recently been criticized by Laurent Sagart.[127]
Scholars in China often assume that the Yue spoke an early form of Tai–Kadai. The linguist Wei Qingwen gave a rendering of the "Song of the Yue boatman" in Standard Zhuang. Zhengzhang Shangfang proposed an interpretation of the song in written Thai (dating from the late 13th century) as the closest available approximation to the original language, but his interpretation remains controversial.[122][127]
Legacy
The Fall of the Han dynasty and the succeeding period of division sped up the process of sinicization. Periods of instability and war in northern China, such as the Northern and Southern dynasties and during the Song dynasty led to mass migrations of Chinese.[128] Intermarriage and cross-cultural dialogue has led to a mixture of Chinese and non-Chinese peoples in the south.[129][130] Most of the distinctive features of vocabulary, phonology and syntax of southern varieties of Chinese are attributed substrate languages spoken by the Yue.[131][132]
By the Tang dynasty (618–907), the term "Yue" had largely become a regional designation rather than a cultural one, as in the Wuyue state during the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period in what is now Zhejiang province.
In ancient China, the characters 越 and 粵 (both yuè in pinyin) were used interchangeably, but they are differentiated in modern Chinese:
- The character "越" refers to the original territory of the state of Yue, which was based in what is now northern Zhejiang, especially the areas around Shaoxing and Ningbo. The Shaoxing opera of Zhejiang, for example, is called "Yue Opera". It is also used to write Vietnam, a word adapted from Nányuè (Vietnamese: Nam Việt), (literal English translation as Southern Yue).
- The character "粵" is associated with the southern province of Guangdong. Both the regional dialects of Yue Chinese and the standard form, popularly called "Cantonese", are spoken in Guangdong, Guangxi, Hong Kong, Macau and in many Cantonese communities around the world.
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{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - ^ Boltz, William G. (1999). "Language and Writing". In Loewe, Michael; Shaughnessy, Edward L. (eds.). The Cambridge history of ancient China: from the origins of civilization to 221 B.C. Cambridge University Press. pp. 74–123. ISBN 978-0-521-47030-8.
- ^ Norman (1988), pp. 18–19, 231
- ^ a b Sagart, Larent (2008). "The expansion of Setaria farmers in East Asia: a linguistic and archeological model". In Sanchez-Mazas, Alicia; Blench, Roger; Ross, Malcolm D.; Peiros, Ilia; Lin, Marie (eds.). Past human migrations in East Asia: matching archaeology, linguistics and genetics. Routledge. pp. 133–157. ISBN 978-0-415-39923-4.
In conclusion, there is no convincing evidence, linguistic or other, of an early Austroasiatic presence on the south‑east China coast.
{{cite book}}: External link in|chapterurl=|chapterurl=ignored (|chapter-url=suggested) (help) - ^ Gernet, Jacques (1996). A History of Chinese Civilization (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-49781-7.
- ^ de Sousa, Hilário (2015). "The Far Southern Sinitic languages as part of Mainland Southeast Asia". In Enfield, N.J.; Comrie, Bernard (eds.). Languages of Mainland Southeast Asia: The State of the Art. Walter de Gruyter. pp. 356–440. ISBN 978-1-5015-0168-5. p. 363.
- ^ Wen, Bo; Li, Hui; Lu, Daru; Song, Xiufeng; Zhang, Feng; He, Yungang; Li, Feng; Gao, Yang; Mao, Xianyun; Zhang, Liang; Qian, Ji; Tan, Jingze; Jin, Jianzhong; Huang, Wei; Deka, Ranjan; Su, Bing; Chakraborty, Ranajit; Jin, Li (2004). "Genetic evidence supports demic diffusion of Han culture". Nature. 431: 302–305. doi:10.1038/nature02878. PMID 15372031.
- ^ de Sousa (2015).
- ^ Yue-Hashimoto, Anne Oi-Kan (1972). Studies in Yue Dialects 1: Phonology of Cantonese. Cambridge University Press. pp. 14–32. ISBN 978-0-521-08442-0.
External links
- "The power of language over the past: Tai settlement and Tai linguistics in southern China and northern Vietnam", Jerold A. Edmondson, in Studies in Southeast Asian languages and linguistics, ed. by Jimmy G. Harris, Somsonge Burusphat and James E. Harris, 39–64. Bangkok, Thailand: Ek Phim Thai Co. Ltd.