Bolesław III Wrymouth

Bolesław III Wrymouth
Prince of Poland
Portrait by Jan Matejko.
Reign	1107–1138
Predecessor	Władysław I Herman
Successor	Władysław II the Exile
Born	20 August 1086 Płock, Poland Poland
Died	28 October 1138(1138-10-28) (aged 52) Sochaczew, Poland
Burial	Masovian Blessed Virgin Mary Cathedral, Płock, Poland
Wives	Zbyslava of Kiev Salomea of Berg
Issue	With Zbyslava: Władysław II the Exile A son A daughter [Judith?], Princess of Murom With Salomea: Leszek Ryksa, Queen of Sweden A daughter, Margravine of Nordmark Casimir Gertruda Bolesław IV the Curly Mieszko III the Old Dobroniega, Margravine of Lusatia Judith, Margravine of Brandenburg Henry Agnes, Grand Princess of Kiev Casimir II the Just
House	Piast
Father	Władysław I Herman
Mother	Judith of Bohemia

Bolesław III Wrymouth Monument in Płock

Poland during the rule of Bolesław III Wrymouth

Bolesław III Wrymouth (also known as Bolesław III the Wry-mouthed, Polish: Bolesław III Krzywousty) (20 August 1086 – 28 October 1138) was Prince of Lesser Poland, Silesia and Sandomierz during 1102-1107 and over all Poland during 1107-1138. He was the only child of Prince Władysław I Herman and his first wife Judith, daughter of Vratislaus II of Bohemia.

Bolesław began to rule in the 1090s decade of the 11th century, when the central government in Poland was significantly weakened. Władysław I Herman fell into political dependence of the Count palatine Sieciech, who became in the real ruler of the country. Boleslaw and his half-brother Zbigniew after several years of fighting in 1101 finally expelled Sieciech from the country backed by their father. After the death of Władysław I Herman in 1102 were created two independent states to Bolesław and Zbigniew.

The pursuit of Bolesław to gain Pomerania caused an armed conflict between the brothers, following which Zbigniew had to flee the country and seek military help from Germany. Bolesław effectively stopped the intervention of the German King Henry V in 1109 and punished Zbigniew blinding him. This action caused outrage among supporters of Zbigniew, resulting in a political crisis in Poland. Bolesław gained again the favor of his subjects with public penance, and made a pilgrimage to the monastery of his patron, Saint Giles, in Hungary.

Bolesław, like Bolesław II the Bold, based his foreign policy on maintaining good relations with neighboring Hungary and Kievan Rus, with whom he forged strong links through marriage and military cooperation in order to break the political dependence of Germany and his vassal, the King of Bohemia, who in moments of weakness Polish policy was forced to pay tribute in Silesia. This alliances have allowed him to effectively defend the country from Henry V's invasion in 1109. Several years later, Bolesław skillfully took advantage from the dynastic disputes in Bohemia to ensure peace on the border of the south-west.

In the second half of his rule, Bolesław devoted to the conquest of Pomerania. In 1113 he conquer the northern strongholds along Noteć, strengthened the border with the Pomeranians. In subsequent years, he took steps toward the conquest of Pomerania. The resolution of the conflict with the Holy Roman Empire allowed Bolesław the incorporation of Gdańsk Pomerania Gdansk and the subordination of Western Pomerania. The military expeditions carried out in three stages, ended in the 1120s with a military and political success. Integration of the newly annexed lands enabled to Bolesław the process of the conversion of Pomerania, and the construction in these areas of Churchs. Bishop Otto of Bamberg from 1123 onward confirmed the Christianization.

In the 1130s Bolesław participed in the dynastic dispute in Hungary. After an unexpected defeat, was forced to made an agreement with Germany. In the Congress of Merseburg of 1135, was addresses the issue of Pomerania, Silesia (probably also Poland) sovereignty and then the supremacy of the Archbishopric of Magdeburg over the Polish Church.

Bolesław was married twice. His first marriage with the Kievan princess Zbyslava, gave him an excuse to intervene militarily in the internal affairs of Russia. After her death, Bolesław married to a German noblewoman, Salomea of Berg, which in some way was the cause of changes in Polish foreign policy: in the second half of his rule, the Prince sought to restore diplomatic relations with his western neighbor. His last, and perhaps the most momentous act, was his will and testament known as "The Succession Statute" in which he divided the country among his sons, leading to almost 200 years of feudal fragmentation of the Polish Kingdom.

Bolesław III Wrymouth has been recognized by historiography as a symbol of Polish political aspirations until well into 19th century. He also upheld the independence of the Polish archbishopric of Gniezno, despite a temporary failure in the 1130s. Despite undoubted successes, he committed serious political errors, most notably against Zbigniew of Poland, his half-brother. The crime against Zbigniew and his penance for it show Bolesław’s great ambition as well as his ability to find political compromise.

Childhood

Situacion of Poland during the 1080's

In 1086 the coronation of Vratislav II as King of Bohemia, and his alignment with László I, King of Hungary, threatened the position of the Polish ruler, Prince Władysław I Herman. Therefore that same year Władysław I was forced to recall from Hungarian banishment the only son of Bolesław II the Bold and a rightful heir to the Polish throne, Mieszko Bolesławowic. Upon his return young Bolesławowic accepted the over-lordship of his uncle and gave up his hereditary claim to the crown of Poland in exchange for becoming first in line to succeed him. In return, Władysław I Herman granted his nephew the district of Kraków. The situation was further complicated for Władysław I Herman by a lack of a legitimate male heir, as his first-born son Zbigniew came from a union not recognized by the church. With the return of Mieszko Bolesławowic to Poland, Władysław I normalized his relations with the kingdom of Hungary as well as Kievan Rus (the marriage of Mieszko Bolesławowic to a Kievan princess was arranged in 1088). These actions allowed Herman to strengthen his authority and alleviate further tensions in international affairs.

Birth of Bolesław

The lack of a legitimate heir, however, remained a concern for Władysław I and in 1085 he and his wife Judith of Bohemia sent rich gifts, among which was a life size statue of a child made of gold, to the Benedictine Sanctuary of Saint Giles in Saint-Gilles, Provance begging for offspring. The Polish envoys were led by the personal chaplain of Duchess Judith, Piotr.

The date of birth of Bolesław is closely linked with the death of his mother Judith. This fact is evidenced by contemporary sources:

• Gallus Anonymus in the Cronicae et gesta ducum sive principum Polonorum reported that Duchess Judith gave birth to Bolesław on the day of King Saint Stephen of Hungary (whose feast since the 11th century was celebrated on 20 August). However, the Duchess' health never recovered from childbirth and died on the night of Nativity (i.e. 24–25 December). Gallus didn't put in his chronicle any date year.

• Cosmas of Prague wrote in Latin in his Chronica Boëmorum ("Chronicle of Bohemians") that Bolesław was born three days before the death of Judith, who died in VIII Calends of January (25 December) of the year 1085.

• The Kalendarz krakowski said that Duchess Judith died on 24 December 1086, and only indicated that the birth of Bolesław was in the same year.

• The Obituary of the Abbey of Saint-Gilles reported the death of Judith on 24 December 1086.

• The Rocznik kapituły krakowskiej (closely related to the Kalendarz krakowski) placed the death of Judith on 24 December 1086.

Historian August Bielowski established Bolesław's birth on 26 December 1085 and the death of his mother two days later, on 28 December. According to him Gallus Anonymus committed two errors. First, instead of the Sunday after the Nativity of the Lord wrote incorrectly in the Sunday of the Nativity. Secondly, he mistaken the day of Saint Stephen (26 December) with the festivities of King Stephen of Hungary (20 August). Both corrections lead to the birth date of Bolesław on 26 December. This theory was supported by the fact that in 1085 28 December fell on a Sunday.

Oswald Balzer refuted Bielowski's theory and pointed that Judith's death was on the night between 24–25 December 1086, and the birth of Bolesław was four months before, on 20 August. According to him, if Judith died on the night between 24–24 December, are possible discrepancies in determining the exact date of the event. All known sources who placed the death of Judith, would then right. Gallus wrote that Judith died shortly after giving birth to a son. Later sources interpret this as a death in childbirth and Cosmas of Prague followed this fact, despite he didn't received the information at first hand. Hence, his mistake would result in this point. In contrast, the right -indicated by Gallus- date of birth of Bolesław would be 20 August. In the medieval tradition the year began on 25 December. In that case, the reports of Cosmas must be concluded that Bolesław was born yet in 1085. This information, however, was in contradiction with the reports of the Kalendarz krakowski, who gave the year 1086. Judith was styled by the authors of the Kalendarz as "regina Polonia" (Queen of Poland in Latin), and this title could be associated with her father's coronation as King of Bohemia and Poland on 15 June 1086 (according to Cosmas). Karol Maleczyński refuted the arguments of Balzer, who accepted the date of the coronation of Vratislav II given by Cosmas. However, most researchers indicates that the coronation took place on 15 June 1085, so Judith could be called Queen a year earlier.

Karol Maleczyński determined that the death of Judith took place on the night between 24–25 December 1085, and Bolesław was born four months before, on 20 August. Researchers found that the date given by the Rocznik kapituły krakowskiej (24 December 1086) was the same established by Cosmas (25 December 1085). The difference in the year could be explained in the different of style dating followed by Cosmas, who began the year according to the Julian calendar on 1 January and Christmas (Nativitate in Latin) on 25 December. For Maleczyński, Kazimierz Jasiński not consider this calendar difference who occurs only during the period 25–31 December.

Archaeologist Wojciech Szafrański reasumed the theory of Bielowski: Judith of Bohemia died on 28 December 1085, and Bolesław was born two days before, on 26 December. According to Szafrański Cosmas used the term VIII Calends of January, with no specific date. However, in the Chronicle of Gallus should read that Judith died on Christmas Day, but on Sunday in the Octave of Christmas. Using such a broadened range of days, the investigator determined the birth of Boleslaw in the feast of Saint Stephen (26 December 26). For this reasons, the date of 1085 given by Bielowski is correct according to him. However, Jasiński pointed the weaknesses of the argument of Szafrański because Gallus has written about the Octave, but specifically about Christmas night, but the investigator didn't consider all other sources, as well as the achievements of research in genealogy.

Marian Plezia argued that Bolesław was born on 2 September 1085 or 1086. According to Gallus, the day of King Stephen of Hungary was also celebrated on 2 September. Jasiński considered this theory unfounded. In Poland the feast of King Stephen of Hungary is pointed by the Kalendarz krakowski and the kalendarz Kodeksu Gertrudy on 20 August. Besides, if Bolesław was born on 2 September, Gallus probably would be noted that this was the day after the celebration of Saint Giles (1 September), which was attributed to be the intercessor of his birth.

Kazimierz Jasiński placed the death of Judith in the night between 24–25 December 1086 and the birth of Bolesław on four months before, on 20 August. In this point he agrees with the findings of Balzer. He supported his views with additional arguments: All sources are based in the missing Rocznika kapituły krakowskiej, and the next known text of this source refers to events in the year 1086. Cosmas, writing his chronicle a few decades later, probably benefited from oral tradition and could make a mistake when he placed the year. His reports who placed the birth of Bolesław three days before the death of his mother denoted a quite short time.

Today is widely recognized the view of both Jasiński and Balzer, that Boleslaw most likely was born in the day of King Stephen of Hungary, 20 August 1086.

Early Years

Following Bolesław’s birth the political climate in the country changed. The position of Bolesław as an heir to the throne was threatened by the presence of Mieszko Bolesławowic, who was already seventeen at the time and was furthermore, by agreement with Władysław I Herman himself, the first in line to succeed. In all likelihood it was this situation that precipitated the young prince Mieszko’s demise in 1089. In that same year Wladyslaw I Herman’s first-born son Zbigniew was sent to a monastery in Quedlinburg, Saxony. This suggests that Wladyslaw I Herman intended to be rid of Zbigniew by making him a monk, and therefore depriving him of any chance of succession. This eliminated two pretenders to the Polish throne, secured young Bolesław’s inheritance as well as diminished the growing opposition to Wladyslaw I Herman among the nobility. Shortly after his ascension, however, Władysław I Herman was forced by the barons to give up the de facto reins of government to Count Palatine Sieciech. This turn of events was likely due to the fact that Herman owed the throne to the barons, the most powerful of whom was Sieciech.

Around this time Władysław I Herman married again. The chosen bride was Judith-Maria, daughter of Emperor Henry III and widow of King Solomon of Hungary, who after her wedding took the name Sophia in order to distinguish herself from Władysław I Herman's first wife. Through this marriage Bolesław gained three or four half-sisters, and as a consequence he remained the only legitimate son and heir. It's believed that the new Duchess was actively aiding Sieciech in his schemes to take over the country and that she became her mistress.

Position of Sieciech in Poland

In 1090 Polish forces under Sieciech's command, managed to gain control of Gdańsk Pomerania, albeit for a short time. Major towns were garrisoned by Polish troops, and the rest were burned in order to thwart future resistance. Several months later, however, a rebellion of native elites led to the restoration of the region’s independence from Poland. The following year a punitive expedition was organized, in order to recover Gdańsk Pomerania. The campaign was decided at the battle of the Wda River, where the Polish knights suffered a defeat despite the assistance of Bohemian troops.

Reception of Jews in Poland in 1096, Painting by Jan Matejko

Prince Bolesław’s childhood happened at a time when a massive political migration out of Poland was taking place, due to Sieciech’s political repressions. Most of the elites who became political refugees found safe haven in Bohemia. Another consequence of Sieciech’s political persecution was the kidnapping of Zbigniew by Sieciech’s enemies and his return from abroad in 1093. Zbigniew took refuge in Silesia, a stronghold of negative sentiment for both Sieciech as well as his nominal patron Władysław I Herman. In the absence of Sieciech and Bolesław, who were captured by Hungarians and kept captive, Prince Władysław I then undertook a penal expedition to Silesia, which was unsuccessful and subsequently obliged him to recognize Zbigniew as a legitimate heir. In 1093 Władysław I signed an Act of Legitimization which granted Zbigniew the rights of descent from his line. Zbigniew was also granted the right to succeed to the throne. Following Sieciech and Bolesław’s escape from Hungary, an expedition against Zbigniew was mounted by the Count Palatine. Its aim was to nullify the Act of Legitimization. The contestants met at the battle of Goplo in 1096, where Sieciech’s forces annihilated the supporters of Zbigniew. Zbigniew himself was taken prisoner, but regained his freedom a year later, in May 1097, due to the intervention of the bishops. At the same time his rights, guaranteed by the Act of Legitimization, were reinstated.

Simultaneously a great migration of Jews from Western Europe to Poland began circa 1096, around the time of the First Crusade. The tolerant rule of Władysław I Herman attracted the Jews who were permitted to settle throughout the entire kingdom without restrictions. The Polish prince, took great care of the Hebrew Diaspora, as he understood its positive influence on the growth of the country’s economy. The new Jewish citizens soon gained trust of the gentiles during the rule of Bolesław III.

Youth

Division of the country

Prince Zbigniew

In view of his father’s disapproval, and after discovering the plans of Sieciech and Duchess Judith-Sophia to take over the country Zbigniew gained an ally in the young prince Bolesław. Both brothers demanded that the reins of government should be handed over to them. It is difficult to believe, however, that Bolesław was making independent decisions at this point as he was only 12 years of age. It is postulated that at this stage he was merely a pawn of the Baron’s power struggle. Władysław I Herman, however, agreed to divide the realm between the brothers, each to be granted his own province while the Prince – Władysław I himself – kept control of Mazovia and its capital at Plock. Władysław also retained control of the most important cities i.e. Wroclaw, Krakow and Sandomierz. Zbigniew’s province encompassed Greater Poland including Gniezno, Kuyavia, Leczyca Land and Sieradz Land. Bolesław’s territory included Lesser Poland, Silesia and Lubusz Land.

The division of the country and the allowance of Bolesław and Zbigniew to co-rule greatly alarmed Sieciech, who then began preparing to dispose of the brothers altogether. Sieciech understood that the division of the country would undermine his position. He initiated a military settlement of the issue and he gained the Prince’s support for it. The position of Herman is seen as ambiguous as he chose to support Sieciech’s cause instead of his sons'. In response to Sieciech’s preparations Bolesław and Zbigniew entered into an alliance. This took place at a popular assembly or Wiec organized in Wroclaw by a magnate named Skarbmir. There it was decided to remove the current guardian of Bolesław, a noble named Wojslaw who was a relative of Sieciech, and arrange for an expedition against the Palatine. Subsequently, in 1099, the armies of Count Palatine and Prince Herman encountered the forces of Zbigniew and Bolesław near Zarnowiec by the river Pilica. There the Rebel forces of Bolesław and Zbigniew defeated Sieciech's army, and Władysław I Herman was obliged to permanently remove Sieciech from the position of Count Palatine.

Fight against Sieciech

The rebel forces were then further directed towards Sieciechów, where the Palatine took refuge. Unexpectedly, Prince Władysław came to the aid of his besieged favorite with a small force. At this point, the Princes decided to depose their father. The opposition sent Zbigniew with an armed contingent to Masovia, where he was to take control of Płock, while Bolesław was directed to the South. The intention was the encirclement of their father, Prince Władysław I. The Prince predicted this maneuver and sent his forces back to Masovia. In the environs of Płock the battle was finally joined and the forces of Władysław I were defeated. The Prince was thereafter forced to exile Sieciech from the country. The Palatine left Poland around 1100/1101. He was known to sojourn in the German lands. However, he eventually returned to Poland but did not play any political role again. He may have been blinded.

First Years of Government

Struggle for the supremacy (1102–1106)

Division of Poland between Bolesław (red) and Zbigniew (green)

Władysław I Herman died on 4 June 1102. The country was divided into two provinces, each administered by one of the late prince’s sons. The extent of each province closely resembled the provinces that the princes were granted by their father three years earlier, the only difference being that Zbigniew also controlled Mazovia with its capital at Płock, effectively ruling the northern part of the kingdom, while his younger half-brother Bolesław ruled its southern portion. In this way two virtually separate states were created. According to some historians, Zbigniew tried to play the role of princeps or overlord, because at that time Bolesław was only 16 years-old. Because he was still too inexperienced to independently direct his domains, the local nobility gathered around him took great influence in the political affairs, included his teacher, Skarbimir from the Awdaniec family.

They conducted separate policies internally as well as externally. They each sought alliances, and sometimes they were enemies of one another. Such was the case with Pomerania, towards which Bolesław aimed his ambitions. Zbigniew, whose country bordered Pomerania, wished to maintain good relations with his northern neighbor. Bolesław, eager to expand his dominion, organized several raids into Pomerania and Prussia. In Autumn of 1102 Bolesław organized a war party into Pomerania during which his forces sacked Białogard.

As reprisal the Pomeranians sent retaliatory war parties into Polish territory, but as Pomerania bordered Zbigniew’s territory these raids ravaged the lands of the prince who was not at fault. Therefore in order to put pressure on Bolesław, Zbigniew allied himself with Bořivoj II of Bohemia, to whom he promised to pay tribute in return for his help. By aligning himself with Bolesław’s southern neighbor Zbigniew wished to compel Bolesław to cease his raids into Pomerania. Bolesław, on the other hand, allied himself with Kievan Rus and Hungary. His marriage to Zbyslava, the daughter of Sviatopolk II Iziaslavich in 1103, was to seal the alliance between himself and the prince of Kiev. However, Bolesław's first diplomatic move was to recognize Pope Paschal II, which put him in strong opposition to the Holy Roman Empire. A later visit of papal legate Gwalo, Bishop of Beauvais brought the church matters into order, it also increased Bolesław's influence.

Bolesław III Wrymouth, painting by J.B. Jacobi (1828).

Zbigniew declined to attend the marriage of Bolesław and Zbyslava. He saw this union and the alliance with Kiev as a serious threat. Thanks to bribery, he therefore prevailed upon his ally, Bořivoj II of Bohemia to invade Bolesław’s province, ostensibly to claim the Polish crown. Bolesław retaliated with expeditions into Moravia in 1104–1105, which brought the young prince not only loot, but also effectively disintegrated the alliance of Pomeranians and Zbigniew. During the return of the army, one part commanded by Żelisław were defeated by the Bohemians. Bolesław, who commanded the other part of the army, couldn't defeated them. Skarbimir, thanks to bribery, could stopped Bořivoj II. With a vast amount of money, the Bohemian ruler returned to his homeland and was concluded a short-lived peace with Bohemia. Then Bořivoj II ended his alliance with Zbigniew. In order to paralyze the alliance of Pomerania and his older brother, Bolesław carried out multiple attacks on northern land in the year 1103 (the battle of Kołobrzeg, where was defeated), and in the years 1104-1105, ended with success.

The intervention of Bolesław in the dynastic dispute in Hungary led him in a difficul political situation. At first, he supported the pretender Álmos,and marched to Hungary to help him. However, during the siege of Abaújvár in 1104, Álmos changed his mind and made peace conversations with his brother and rival King Coloman, at that point Zbigniew's ally. Bolesław then retired his troops from Hungary and in 1105 made a treaty with Coloman. It was decided then that Bolesław didn't support Álmos against the alliance Coloman-Zbigniew. In addition, the Hungarian King broke his agreements with the Bohemian Kingdom. The dynastic dispute in Prague between Bořivoj II and his cousin Svatopluk caused the intervention of Bolesław and his ally King Coloman in support of Svatopluk, with the main objective to placed him in the Bohemian throne. However, a new rebellion of Álmos forced Coloman and his army to return Hungary.

Also in 1105, Bolesław entered into an agreement with his half-brother, in the same way like just a few years before entered with their stepmother Judith-Sophia (who in exchange of an abundant Oprawa wdowia (dower lands), secured her neutrality in Bolesław's political contest with Zbigniew One year later, the treaty ended when Zbigniew refused to help his half-brother in his fight against Pomerania. While hunting, Bolesław was unexpectedly attacked by them. In the battle, the young prince almost lost his life. Bohemia, using the involvement of Bolesław in the Pomeranian affairs as an excuse, attacked Silesia. The prince tried to re-established the alliance with his half-brother, without success. The effect of this refusal was the rapprochement to the Bohemian Kingdomin 1106. Bolesław managed to bribe Bořivoj II and have him join his side in the contest against Zbigniew and shortly after formally allied himself with Coloman of Hungary. With the help of his Kievan and Hungarian allies Bolesław attacked Zbigniew’s territory, and began a civil war for the supreme power in Poland. The allied forces of Bolesław easily took control of most important cities including Kalisz, Gniezno, Spycimierz and Łęczyca, in effect taking half of Zbigniew’s lands. Through a mediation of Baldwin, Bishop of Kraków, a peace treaty was signed at Łęczyca, in which Zbigniew officially recognized Bolesław as the Supreme Prince of all Poland. However, he was allowed to retain Masovia as a fief.

Sole Ruler of Poland

In 1107 Bolesław III along with his ally King Coloman of Hungary, invaded Bohemia in order to aid Svatopluk the Lion of Bohemia in gaining the Czech throne. The intervention in the Czech succession was meant to secure Polish interests to the south. The expedition was a full success. On 14 May 1107 Svatopluk was made Prince of Bohemia, in Prague.

Later that year Bolesław undertook a punitive expedition against his brother Zbigniew. The reason for this was that Zbigniew did not follow the orders of Bolesław III and did not burn down the fort of Kurów. Another reason was that Zbigniew did not keep his duty as a vassal and did not provide military aid to his lord, Bolesław III, for a campaign against the Pomeranians. In the winter of 1107–1108 with the help of Kievan and Hungarian allies, Bolesław III began a final campaign to rid himself of Zbigniew. His forces attacked Mazovia, and quickly forced Zbigniew to surrender. Following this Zbigniew was banished from the country altogether. From then forward Bolesław III was the sole lord of the Polish lands, though in fact his over-lordship began in 1107 when Zbigniew paid him homage as his feudal lord.

Later on in 1108, Bolesław III, once again attacked Bohemia, as his ally King Coloman of Hungary was under attack by the combined forces of Holy Roman Empire and Bohemia. Another reason for the expedition was the fact that Svatopluk, who owed Bolesław III his throne, did not honor his accord in which he promised to return Silesian cities seized from Poland (Raciborz, Kamieniec, Kozle among others) by his predecessors. Bolesław III began to back Borivoj II of Bohemia and aimed to bring him back in power. This attempt was not successful.

Battle of Hundsfeld, from The Polish Chronicle of Marcin Bielski (1597)

In response to Bolesław’s aggressive foreign policy, German king and Holy Roman Emperor Henry V undertook a punitive expedition against Poland in 1109. In the resulting Polish-German War, German Forces were assisted by Czech warriors provided by Svatopluk the Lion, Prince of Bohemia. The alleged reason for war was the issue of Zbigniew and his pretensions to the Polish throne. The military operations mainly took place in southwestern Poland, in Silesia, where Henry V’s army laid siege to major strongholds of Głogów, Wrocław and Bytom Odrzanski. The heroic defense of towns, where Polish children were used as human shields by the Germans, in large measure contributed to the German inability to succeed. At this time along with the defense of towns, Bolesław III Wrymouth was conducting a highly effective guerrilla war against the Holy Roman Emperor and his allies, and eventually he defeated the German Imperial forces at the Battle of Hundsfeld on 24 August 1109. In the end Henry V was forced to withdraw from Silesia and Poland altogether.

A year later in 1110 Bolesław III undertook an armed expedition against the German ally, Bohemia. His intention was to install yet another pretender on the Czech throne, Soběslav I. During the campaign Bolesław won a decisive victory against the Czechs at the Battle of Trutina. However, following the battle he ordered his forces to withdraw further attack against Bohemia. The reason for this is speculated to be the unpopularity of Soběslav among Czechs as well as Bolesław’s unwillingness to further deteriorate his relations with the Holy Roman Empire. In 1111 a truce between Poland and the Holy Roman Empire was signed which stipulated that Soběslav I would be able to return to Bohemia while Zbigniew would be able to return to his native Poland. That same year Zbigniew was received back in Poland and furnished with a grant. A year later in 1112 he was blinded on Bolesław’s orders.

Excommunication

Archbishop of Gniezno, Martin I

The blinding of Zbigniew caused a strong negative reaction among Bolesław's subjects. It should be noted that unlike for instance in the east, blinding in medieval Poland was not accomplished by burning the eyes out with a red hot iron rod or knife, but a much more brutal technique was employed. The condemned man's eyes were pried out using special pliers. The convict was made to open his eyes and if he did not do so, his eyelids were torn out along with his eyeballs. Upon learning of Bolesław's act Martin I, Archbishop of Gniezno and primate of Poland, who was a strong supporter of Zbigniew, excommunicated Bolesław III Wrymouth for committing the crime against his half-brother. Archbishop Martin also exempted all of his subjects from the obligation of obedience to Prince Bolesław III. The prince was faced with a real possibility of uprising, of the sort that deposed Bolesław the Bold. Seeing his precarious situation Bolesław III sought the customary penance that would reconcile the high priesthood. According to Gallus Anonymus, Bolesław first fasted for forty days, replaced his fine clothes with a hair cloth and slept "in ashes". He also sought and received forgiveness from his brother Zbigniew. This however, was not enough to convince the high echelons of the church and lift the excommunication. The prince was compelled to undertake a pilgrimage to Hungary to the monasteries of Saint Giles and Saint Stephen I in Székesfehérvár. The pilgrimage to the Abbey of Saint Giles also had a political goal; Bolesław strengthened his ties of friendship and alliance with the Arpad dynasty the ruling house of Hungary. Following his return to Poland, Bolesław III traveled to Gniezno to pay further penance at the tomb of Saint Adalbert. He also bestowed numerous costly gifts on the poor and clergy throughout his penance. Due to his dedication the excommunication was finally lifted.

Conquest and conversion of Pomerania

Main articles: Pomerania during the High Middle Ages, Duchy of Pomerania, and Conversion of Pomerania

Map of Pomerania including the island of Rugia (17th century)

The issue of conquest of Pomerania had been a lifelong pursuit for Bolesław III Wrymouth. His political goals were twofold; first – to strengthen the Polish border on the Noteć river line, second – to subjugate Pomerania with Polish political overlordship but without actually incorporating it into the country with the exception of Gdansk Pomerania and a southern belt north of river Noteć which were to be absorbed by Poland. By 1113 the northern border has been strengthened. The fortified border cities included: Santok, Wieleń, Nakło, Czarnków, Ujście and Wyszogród. Some sources report that the border began at the mouth of river Warta and Oder in the west, ran along the river Noteć all the way to the Vistula river.

Before Bolesław III began to expand in the Pomerelia, he normalized his relations with his southern Bohemian neighbors. This took place in 1114 at a great convention on the border river Nysa Kłodzka. Participants included Bolesław III himself, as well as Bohemian princes of the Premyslid line: Vladislaus I, Otto II the Black and Soběslav I. The pact was sealed by marriage of the then widower Bolesław III with the sister of the wife of Vladislaus I, Salomea of Berg.

In 1119 Bolesław III recaptured the territories of Gdansk Pomerania. During his Pomeranian campaign a rebellion by count palatine Skarbmir of the Abdaniec clan began. The rebellion was quelled by the prince in 1117 and the mutinous nobleman was blinded as punishment. He was replaced as count palatine by Piotr Wlostowic of the Labedz clan. In 1121 combined forces of Pomeranian princes Wartislaw I and Swantopolk I were defeated by Poles at the battle of Niekładź. From then on Bolesław ravaged Pomerania, destroyed native strongholds, and forced thousands of Pomeranians to resettle deep into Polish territory. The prince’s further expansion was aimed towards Szczecin. The Polish ruler realized that Szczecin was a strong fort, well defended by the natural barrier of the Oder river as well as by well-built fortifications. The only way to approach the walls was through the frozen waters of a nearby swamp. Taking advantage of element of surprise Bolesław III launched his assault from precisely that direction, and took control of the city. Much of the population was put to the sword which motivated the remaining populace to subordinate to the Polish monarch. In the years 1121–1122 Pomerania became a Polish fief and a local strongman, Prince Wartislaw I swore feudal allegiance to the Polish monarch and undertook to pay a yearly tribute of 500 marks of silver to Poland(One mark of silver was equal to 240 denarii.) Wartislaw I also promised military aid to Poland at Bolesław’s request. In subsequent years the tribute was reduced to 300 marks.

St.Otto of Bamberg

In order to make Polish and Pomeranian ties stronger, Bolesław III organized a mission to Christianize the newly acquired territory. The Polish monarch understood that the Christianization of the conquered territory would be an effective means of strengthening his authority there. At the same time the Bolesław III wished to subordinate Pomerania to the Gniezno Archbishopric. Unfortunately first attempts made by unknown missionaries did not make the desired progress. Another attempt, officially sponsored by the Polish prince, and led by Bernard the Spaniard who traveled to Wolin, has ended in another failure. The next two missions were carried out in 1124–1125 and 1128 by Bishop Otto of Bamberg. Following an accord made between Prince Bolesław and Wartislaw I, Otto set out on a first stage of Christianization of the region. He was accompanied throughout his mission by the Pomeranian Prince Wartislaw I, who greeted the missionary on the border of his domain, in the environs of the city of Sanok. At Stargard the pagan prince promised Otto his assistance in the Pomeranian cities as well as help during the journey. He also assigned 500 armored knights to act as guard for the bishop’s protection. Primary missionary activities were aimed in the direction of Pyrzyce, then the towns of Kamien, Wolin, Szczecin and once again Wolin. At Szczecin and Wolin which were important centers of Slavic paganism, opposition to conversion was particularly strong among the pagan priests and populace alike. Conversion was finally accepted only after Bolesław III lowered the annual tribute he imposed on the Pomeranians. Four great pagan temples were torn down and churches were built in their places, as was the usual custom of the Catholic Church.

In 1127 the first pagan rebellions began to take place. These were due to both the large tribute imposed by Poland as well as a plague that descended on Pomerania and which was blamed on Christianity. The rebellions were largely instigated by the old pagan priests, who had not come to terms with their new circumstances. Prince Wartislaw I confronted these uprisings with some success, but was not able to prevent several insurgent raids into Polish territory. Because of this Polish Prince Bolesław III was preparing a massive penal expedition that may have spoiled all the earlier accomplishments of missionary work by Bishop Otto. Thanks to Otto’s diplomacy direct confrontation was avoided and in 1128 he embarked on another mission to Pomerania. This time more stress was applied to the territories west of the Oder River, i.e. Usedom, Wołogoszcz (Wolgast) and Choćków (Gützkow), which were not under Polish suzerainty. The final stage of the mission returned to Szczecin, Wolin and Kammin. The Christianization of Pomerania is considered one of the greatest accomplishments of Bolesław’s III Pomeranian policy.

Once the missionary activities of Otto of Bamberg took root Bolesław III began to implement an ecclesiastical organization of Pomerania. Pomerelia was added to the Diocese of Włocławek, known at the time as the Kujavian Diocese. A strip of borderland north of Noteć was split between the Diocese of Gniezno and Diocese of Poznan. The bulk of Pomerania was however made an independent Pomeranian bishopric, set up in the territory of the Duchy of Pomerania in 1140, after Bolesław had died in 1138 and the duchy had broken away from Poland.

In 1135 in Merseburg, Bolesław had accepted overlordship of Holy Roman Emperor Lothair III over his Pomeranian gains as well as the Principality of Rügen. However he remained fully independent ruler of his main realm – Kingdom of Poland. With Bolesław's death in 1138, Polish authority over Pomerania ended, triggering competition of the Holy Roman Empire and Denmark for the area.

Church foundations

Sarcophagus Bolesław III in Plock Cathedral

Prince Bolesław III was not only a predatory warrior but also a cunning politician and a diplomat. He was also a patron of cultural developments in his realm. Like most medieval monarchs, he founded several churches and monasteries most important of which are the monastery of Canons regular of St. Augustinein Trzemeszno, founded in the 12th century, and a Benedictine monastery of Holy Cross atop the Łysa Góra which was founded in place of an ancient pagan temple. Also the first major Polish chronicle written by one Gallus Anonymus dates back to the reign of Prince Bolesław III.

Last years

In 1135, Bolesław finally paid twelve years past Pomeranian tribute. The emperor "granted" Bolesław parts of Western Pomerania and Rügen as fiefs.

Bolesław also campaigned in Hungary 1132–1135, but to little effect.

Statute of succession

Before his death in 1138, Bolesław Wrymouth published his testament dividing his lands among four of his sons. The "Senioral Principle" established in the testament stated that at all times the eldest member of the dynasty was to have supreme power over the rest and was also to control an indivisible "senioral part": a vast strip of land running north-south down the middle of Poland, with Kraków its chief city. The Senior's prerogatives also included control over Pomerania, a fief of the Holy Roman Empire. The "senioral principle" was soon broken, leading to a period of nearly 200 years of Poland's feudal fragmentation.

Marriages and issue

By 16 November 1102 Bolesław married Zbyslava (b. ca. 1085/90 – d. ca. 1112), daughter of Grand Duke Sviatopolk II of Kiev. They had three children:

1. Władysław II the Exile (b. 1105 – d. Altenburg, 30 May 1159).
2. A son (b. ca. 1108 – d. aft. 1109).
3. A daughter [Judith?] (b. ca. 1111 – d. aft. 1124), married in 1124 to Vsevolod Davidovich, Prince of Murom.

Between March and July 1115, Bolesław married his second wife, Salomea (b. bef. 1101 – d. 27 July 1144), daughter of Henry, Count of Berg-Schelklingen. They had eleven children:

1. Leszek (b. 1115/16 – d. 26 August bef. 1131), died in infancy.
2. Ryksa (b. 1116 – d. aft. 25 December 1156), married first ca. 1127 to Magnus the Strong, King of Västergötland; second on 18 June 1136 to Volodar Glebovich, Prince of Minsk and Hrodno; and third in 1148 to King Sverker I of Sweden.
3. A daughter (b. bef. 1119 – d. aft. 1131), betrothed or married in 1131 to Conrad, Count of Plötzkau and Margrave of Nordmark.
4. Casimir (b. 9 August 1122 – d. 19 October 1131), called the Older by modern historiography, died in infancy.
5. Gertruda (b. 1123/24 – d. 7 May 1160), a nun at Zwiefalten (1139).
6. Bolesław IV the Curly (b. ca. 1125 – d. 3 April 1173).
7. Mieszko III the Old (b. 1126/27 – d. Kalisz, 13 March 1202).
8. Dobroniega (b. 1129 – d. by 1160), married ca. 1142 to Theodoric I, Margrave of Lusatia.
9. Judith (b. 1130 – d. 8 July 1175), married on 6 January 1148 to Otto I, Margrave of Brandenburg.
10. Henry (b. 1131 – d. 18 October 1166).
11. Agnes (b. 1137 – d. aft. 1182), married in 1151 to Mstislav II, Prince of Pereyaslavl and Grand Prince of Kiev since 1168.
12. Casimir II the Just (b. 1138 – d. 5 May 1194).

Ancestry

Family of Bolesław III Wrymouth

16. Bolesław I Chrobry 8. Mieszko II Lambert 17. Emnilda of Lusatia 4. Casimir I the Restorer 18. Ezzo, Count Palatine of Lotharingia 9. Richeza of Lotharingia 19. Matilda of Germany 2. Władysław I Herman 20. Sviatoslav I of Kiev 10. Vladimir I of Kiev 21. Malusha 5. Maria Dobroniega of Kiev 1. Bolesław III Wrymouth 24. Oldrich, Duke of Bohemia 12. Bretislaus I, Duke of Bohemia 25. Bozena 6. Vratislaus II of Bohemia 26. Henry of Schweinfurt 13. Judith of Schweinfurt 27. Gerberga 3. Judith of Bohemia 28. Vazul 14. Andrew I of Hungary 7. Adelaide of Hungary 30. Yaroslav the Wise 15. Anastasia of Kiev 31. Ingegerd Olofsdotter of Sweden

See also

• Piast dynasty
• History of Poland (966–1385)

External links

• Map of the feudal dissolution
• http://genealogics.org/getperson.php?personID=I00020809&tree=LEO