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==Venom==
==Venom==
The Caspian cobra is the most venomous species of [[Naja|cobra]] in the world, slightly ahead of the [[Philippine cobra]] based on a toxinological study from 1992 found in the Indian Journal of Experimental Biology, in which this species produced the highest potency venom among cobras. The venom of this species has the most potent composition of toxins found among any [[Naja|cobra]] species known. The venom is primarily a potent [[neurotoxin]],<ref name=DoD/> but it also has some [[cytotoxin|cytotoxic]] activity (tissue-death, necrosis).<ref name=cytotoxins>{{cite journal |doi=10.1042/BJ20041892 |title=Cancer cell injury by cytotoxins from cobra venom is mediated through lysosomal damage |year=2005 |last1=Sharonov |first1=George V. |last2=Feofanov |first2=Alexei V. |last3=Astapova |first3=Maria V. |last4=Rodionov |first4=Dmitriy I. |last5=Utkin |first5=Yuriy N. |last6=Arseniev |first6=Alexander S. |journal=Biochemical Journal |volume=390 |pages=11–8 |pmid=15847607 |issue=Pt 1 |pmc=1184559}}</ref> Two forms of "cytotoxin II" ([[cardiotoxin]]) were found in the venom of this species.<ref name=CTII>{{cite journal |doi=10.1046/j.1432-1327.1999.00478.x |title=Two forms of cytotoxin II (cardiotoxin) from Naja naja oxiana in aqueous solution . Spatial structures with tightly bound water molecules |year=1999 |last1=Dementieva |first1=Daria V. |last2=Bocharov |first2=Eduard V. |last3=Arseniev |first3=Alexander. S. |journal=European Journal of Biochemistry |volume=263 |pages=152–62 |pmid=10429199 |issue=1}}</ref> This is the most venomous species of cobra in the world. The crude venom of this species produced the lowest known lethal dose (LCLo) of 0.005&nbsp;mg/kg, the lowest among all cobra species, derived from an individual case of poisoning by [[Ventricular system|intracerebroventricular]] injection.<ref name=L&R>{{cite journal|last=Lysz|first=Thomas W.|coauthors=Rosenberg, Philip|title=Convulsant activity of Naja naja oxiana venom and its phospholipase A component|journal=Toxicon|year=1974|month=May|volume=12|issue=3|pages=253–265|doi=10.1016/0041-0101(74)90067-1|accessdate=6 December 2013}}</ref> A 1992 extensive toxinology study gave an average value of 0.18&nbsp;mg/kg (range 0.1&nbsp;mg/kg - 0.26&nbsp;mg/kg) by [[Subcutis|subcutaneous injection]].<ref name=IJEB>{{cite journal|last=Khare|first=AD|coauthors=Khole V, Gade PR|title=Toxicities, LD50 prediction and in vivo neutralisation of some elapid and viperid venoms|journal=Indian Journal of Experimental Biology|year=1992|month=December|volume=30|issue=12|pages=1158-62|pmid=1294479|url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1294479|accessdate=6 December 2013}}</ref> The murine [[Subcutis|subcutaneous]] {{LD50}} value of 0.4&nbsp;mg/kg (Brown, 1973),<ref name=Brown>{{cite book |last=Brown |first=John H. |title=Toxicology and Pharmacology of Venoms from Poisonous Snakes |year=1973 |publisher=Charles C. Thomas Publishers |location=Springfield, IL USA |isbn=0-398-02808-7|page=82}}</ref> while Ernst and Zug ''et al.'' list murine a value of 0.21&nbsp;mg/kg [[Subcutis|SC]] and 0.037&nbsp;mg/kg [[Intravenous injection|IV]].<ref name="ErZug">{{cite book|last= Zug|first= George R.|title= Snakes in Question: The Smithsonian Answer Book |year= 1996|publisher= Smithsonian Institution Scholarly Press |location= Washington D.C., USA|isbn= 1-56098-648-4}}</ref> In another study, where venom was collected from specimens in Iran, the IV {{LD50}} was 0.078&nbsp;mg/kg.<ref name=Iran>{{cite journal|last=Akbari|first=A|coauthors=Rabiei , H., Hedayat, A., Mohammadpour, N., Zolfagharian, H., Teimorzadeh, Sh.|title=Production of effective antivenin to treat cobra snake (Naja naja oxiana) envenoming|journal=Archives of Razi Institute|year=2010|month=June|volume=65|issue=1|pages=33-37|url=http://rockyourpaper.org/article/production-of-effective-antivenin-to-treat-cobra-snake-naja-naja-oxiana-envenoming-887be8012ae6d7d5cbc366419e6afe8c|accessdate=7 December 2013}}</ref> Average venom yield per bite for this species is between 75 and 125&nbsp;mg (dry weight),<ref name=wch/> but it may yield up to 590&nbsp;mg (dry weight).<ref name="Latifi84">{{cite journal|last=Latifi|first=M|title=Variation in yield and lethality of venoms from Iranian snakes|journal=Toxicon|year=1984|volume=22|issue=3|pages=373-380|pmid=6474490|accessdate=6 November 2013}}</ref> The bite of this species may cause severe pain and swelling, along with severe neurotoxicity. Weakness, drowsiness, ataxia, hypotension, and paralysis of throat and limbs may appear in less than one hour after the bite. Without medical treatment, symptoms rapidly worsen and death can occur soon after a bite due to respiratory failure.<ref name=DoD/> A woman bitten by this species in northwestern Pakistan suffered severe neurotoxicity and died while en route to the closest hospital nearly 50 minutes after envenomation. Between 1979 and 1987, 136 confirmed bites were attributed to this species in the former Soviet Union. Of the 136, 121 received antivenom, and only four died. Of the 15 who did not receive antivenom, 11 died, giving this species a 73% mortality rate in untreated victims. In [[Central Asia]], this species is responsible for a large amount of bites and fatalities.<ref name=medsnakes>{{cite book|last=Gopalkrishnakone, Chou|first=P., LM|title=Snakes of Medical Importance (Asia-Pacific Region)|year=1990|publisher=National University of Singapore|location=Singapore|isbn=9971-62-217-3}}</ref> This species is an abundant snake in north east of Iran and is responsible for a very large number of [[snakebite]] mortality.<ref name=L84>{{cite book|last=Latifi|first=Mahmoud|title=Snakes of Iran|year=1984|publisher=Society for the Study of Amphibians & Reptiles|isbn=978-0-91-698422-9}}</ref>
The Caspian cobra is the most venomous species of [[Naja|cobra]] in the world, slightly ahead of the [[Philippine cobra]] based on a toxinological study from 1992 found in the Indian Journal of Experimental Biology, in which this species produced the highest potency venom among cobras. The venom of this species has the most potent composition of toxins found among any [[Naja|cobra]] species known. The venom is primarily a potent [[neurotoxin]],<ref name=DoD/> but it also has some [[cytotoxin|cytotoxic]] activity (tissue-death, necrosis).<ref name=cytotoxins>{{cite journal |doi=10.1042/BJ20041892 |title=Cancer cell injury by cytotoxins from cobra venom is mediated through lysosomal damage |year=2005 |last1=Sharonov |first1=George V. |last2=Feofanov |first2=Alexei V. |last3=Astapova |first3=Maria V. |last4=Rodionov |first4=Dmitriy I. |last5=Utkin |first5=Yuriy N. |last6=Arseniev |first6=Alexander S. |journal=Biochemical Journal |volume=390 |pages=11–8 |pmid=15847607 |issue=Pt 1 |pmc=1184559}}</ref> Two forms of "cytotoxin II" ([[cardiotoxin]]) were found in the venom of this species.<ref name=CTII>{{cite journal |doi=10.1046/j.1432-1327.1999.00478.x |title=Two forms of cytotoxin II (cardiotoxin) from Naja naja oxiana in aqueous solution . Spatial structures with tightly bound water molecules |year=1999 |last1=Dementieva |first1=Daria V. |last2=Bocharov |first2=Eduard V. |last3=Arseniev |first3=Alexander. S. |journal=European Journal of Biochemistry |volume=263 |pages=152–62 |pmid=10429199 |issue=1}}</ref> This is the most venomous species of cobra in the world. The crude venom of this species produced the lowest known lethal dose (LCLo) of 0.005&nbsp;mg/kg, the lowest among all cobra species, derived from an individual case of poisoning by [[Ventricular system|intracerebroventricular]] injection.<ref name=L&R>{{cite journal|last=Lysz|first=Thomas W.|coauthors=Rosenberg, Philip|title=Convulsant activity of Naja naja oxiana venom and its phospholipase A component|journal=Toxicon|year=1974|month=May|volume=12|issue=3|pages=253–265|doi=10.1016/0041-0101(74)90067-1|accessdate=6 December 2013}}</ref> A 1992 extensive toxinology study gave an average value of 0.18&nbsp;mg/kg (range 0.1&nbsp;mg/kg - 0.26&nbsp;mg/kg) by [[Subcutis|subcutaneous injection]].<ref name=IJEB>{{cite journal|last=Khare|first=AD|coauthors=Khole V, Gade PR|title=Toxicities, LD50 prediction and in vivo neutralisation of some elapid and viperid venoms|journal=Indian Journal of Experimental Biology|year=1992|month=December|volume=30|issue=12|pages=1158-62|pmid=1294479|url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1294479|accessdate=6 December 2013}}</ref> The murine [[Subcutis|subcutaneous]] {{LD50}} value of 0.4&nbsp;mg/kg (Brown, 1973),<ref name=Brown>{{cite book |last=Brown |first=John H. |title=Toxicology and Pharmacology of Venoms from Poisonous Snakes |year=1973 |publisher=Charles C. Thomas Publishers |location=Springfield, IL USA |isbn=0-398-02808-7|page=82}}</ref> while Ernst and Zug ''et al.'' list murine a value of 0.21&nbsp;mg/kg [[Subcutis|SC]] and 0.037&nbsp;mg/kg [[Intravenous injection|IV]].<ref name="ErZug">{{cite book|last= Zug|first= George R.|title= Snakes in Question: The Smithsonian Answer Book |year= 1996|publisher= Smithsonian Institution Scholarly Press |location= Washington D.C., USA|isbn= 1-56098-648-4}}</ref> In another study, where venom was collected from specimens in Iran, the IV {{LD50}} was 0.078&nbsp;mg/kg.<ref name=Iran>{{cite journal|last=Akbari|first=A|coauthors=Rabiei , H., Hedayat, A., Mohammadpour, N., Zolfagharian, H., Teimorzadeh, Sh.|title=Production of effective antivenin to treat cobra snake (Naja naja oxiana) envenoming|journal=Archives of Razi Institute|year=2010|month=June|volume=65|issue=1|pages=33-37|url=http://rockyourpaper.org/article/production-of-effective-antivenin-to-treat-cobra-snake-naja-naja-oxiana-envenoming-887be8012ae6d7d5cbc366419e6afe8c|accessdate=7 December 2013}}</ref> Average venom yield per bite for this species is between 75 and 125&nbsp;mg (dry weight),<ref name=wch/> but it may yield up to 590&nbsp;mg (dry weight).<ref name="Latifi84">{{cite journal|last=Latifi|first=M|title=Variation in yield and lethality of venoms from Iranian snakes|journal=Toxicon|year=1984|volume=22|issue=3|pages=373-380|pmid=6474490|accessdate=6 November 2013}}</ref> The bite of this species may cause severe pain and swelling, along with severe neurotoxicity. Weakness, drowsiness, ataxia, hypotension, and paralysis of throat and limbs may appear in less than one hour after the bite. Without medical treatment, symptoms rapidly worsen and death can occur soon after a bite due to respiratory failure.<ref name=DoD/> A woman bitten by this species in northwestern Pakistan suffered severe neurotoxicity and died while en route to the closest hospital nearly 50 minutes after envenomation. Between 1979 and 1987, 136 confirmed bites were attributed to this species in the former Soviet Union. Of the 136, 121 received antivenom, and only four died. Of the 15 who did not receive antivenom, 11 died - a 73% mortality rate. Antivenom is not as effective for envenomation by this species as it is for other Asiatic cobras within the same region, like the Indian cobra (''Naja naja'') and due to the dangerous toxicity of this species' venom, massive amounts of antivenom are often required for patients. As a result, a monovalent antivenom serum is being developed by the Razi Serum and Vaccine Research Institute in Iran.<ref name=Iran/> The untreated mortality rate for this species is 70-75%, which is the highest among all cobra species of the genus ''Naja''.<ref name="medsnakes">{{cite book|last=Gopalkrishnakone, Chou|first=P., LM|title=Snakes of Medical Importance (Asia-Pacific Region)|year=1990|publisher=National University of Singapore|location=Singapore|isbn=9971-62-217-3}}{{pn|date=October 2013}}</ref> In [[Central Asia]], this species is responsible for a large amount of bites and fatalities.<ref name=medsnakes>{{cite book|last=Gopalkrishnakone, Chou|first=P., LM|title=Snakes of Medical Importance (Asia-Pacific Region)|year=1990|publisher=National University of Singapore|location=Singapore|isbn=9971-62-217-3}}</ref> This species is an abundant snake in north east of Iran and is responsible for a very large number of [[snakebite]] mortality.<ref name=L84>{{cite book|last=Latifi|first=Mahmoud|title=Snakes of Iran|year=1984|publisher=Society for the Study of Amphibians & Reptiles|isbn=978-0-91-698422-9}}</ref>


==See also==
==See also==

Revision as of 19:52, 7 December 2013

Caspian cobra
Scientific classification
Kingdom:
Animalia
Phylum:
Chordata
Class:
Reptilia
Order:
Squamata
Suborder:
Serpentes
Family:
Elapidae
Genus:
Naja
Species:
N. oxiana
Binomial name
Naja oxiana
(Eichwald, 1831)[2]

The Caspian cobra (Naja oxiana), also called the Central Asian cobra or Oxus cobra, is the most venomous species of cobra in the world and belongs to the family Elapidae found in Central Asia. It is the

Description

A Caspian cobra

This species is medium to large in length, a heavy-bodied snake with long cervical ribs capable of expansion to form a hood. The body is compressed dorsoventrally and subcylindrical posteriorly. This species averages about 1 m (3.3 ft)[3] in length and rarely reaches lengths over 1.5 m (4.9 ft).[4] The head is elliptical, depressed, and slightly distinct from the neck, with a short, rounded snout and large nostrils. The eyes are medium in size with round pupils. Dorsal scales are smooth and strongly oblique, with the outer two or three scale rows larger than the remainder.[3] Juveniles tend to be pale, with a faded appearance. They have noticeable dark and light cross-bands of approximately equal width around the body. Adults of this species are completely light to chocolate brown or yellowish, some retain traces of juvenile banding, especially the first few dark ventral bands. This species has no hood mark and no lateral throat spots.[4]

Taxonomic note

Indian cobra (Naja naja) specimens without a hood mark are usually confused with this species, where these two coexist in Pakistan and northern India. The Caspian cobra is never fully black, although some specimens may be quite dark. This species of cobra normally has several dark bands under the throat, whereas in the black phase of Indian cobras (N. naja) from Pakistan, almost the entire throat is black.[5]

Scalation

This cobra has 23 to 27 (usually 25) scale rows around the hood, 19-23 (usually 21) just ahead of midbody, 191-210 ventrals, and 57-71 paired subcaudals; cuneates are often absent.[4]

Distribution

This species occurs in the Transcaspian Region. It is found in Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, Tadzhikistan, north and east Afghanistan, northeastern Iran, the northern half of Pakistan, from the Kashmir region east to the state of Himachal Pradesh in India, and in southwestern Tajikistan.[3][4]

Habitat

This species is often found in arid and semiarid, rocky or stony, shrub or scrub covered foothills[3] at elevations up to about 3,000 m (9,800 ft) above sea level. This is also the westernmost species of Asiatic cobra.[6]

Behavior and ecology

This species is generally aggressive and bad-tempered. Although they will avoid humans as much as they can, they will become fiercely aggressive when threatened or cornered. Even juveniles tend to be very aggressive. When cornered and provoked, it will spread its hood, hiss, sway from side to side and strike repeatedly; it is not a spitter. This terrestrial species is mainly diurnal, but it may be crepuscular and nocturnal in some parts of its range during the hottest months (July and August). It is a good climber and a good swimmer. It is often found in water and seldom found too far away from it. It feeds on small mammals, amphibians and birds during the evening and early morning. The Caspian cobra will prey mainly on rodents, toads and frogs, occasionally fish, birds and their eggs.[3] Quick-moving and agile, this species lives in holes in embankments or trees.[6]

Venom

The Caspian cobra is the most venomous species of cobra in the world, slightly ahead of the Philippine cobra based on a toxinological study from 1992 found in the Indian Journal of Experimental Biology, in which this species produced the highest potency venom among cobras. The venom of this species has the most potent composition of toxins found among any cobra species known. The venom is primarily a potent neurotoxin,[6] but it also has some cytotoxic activity (tissue-death, necrosis).[7] Two forms of "cytotoxin II" (cardiotoxin) were found in the venom of this species.[8] This is the most venomous species of cobra in the world. The crude venom of this species produced the lowest known lethal dose (LCLo) of 0.005 mg/kg, the lowest among all cobra species, derived from an individual case of poisoning by intracerebroventricular injection.[9] A 1992 extensive toxinology study gave an average value of 0.18 mg/kg (range 0.1 mg/kg - 0.26 mg/kg) by subcutaneous injection.[10] The murine subcutaneous LD50 value of 0.4 mg/kg (Brown, 1973),[11] while Ernst and Zug et al. list murine a value of 0.21 mg/kg SC and 0.037 mg/kg IV.[12] In another study, where venom was collected from specimens in Iran, the IV LD50 was 0.078 mg/kg.[13] Average venom yield per bite for this species is between 75 and 125 mg (dry weight),[3] but it may yield up to 590 mg (dry weight).[14] The bite of this species may cause severe pain and swelling, along with severe neurotoxicity. Weakness, drowsiness, ataxia, hypotension, and paralysis of throat and limbs may appear in less than one hour after the bite. Without medical treatment, symptoms rapidly worsen and death can occur soon after a bite due to respiratory failure.[6] A woman bitten by this species in northwestern Pakistan suffered severe neurotoxicity and died while en route to the closest hospital nearly 50 minutes after envenomation. Between 1979 and 1987, 136 confirmed bites were attributed to this species in the former Soviet Union. Of the 136, 121 received antivenom, and only four died. Of the 15 who did not receive antivenom, 11 died - a 73% mortality rate. Antivenom is not as effective for envenomation by this species as it is for other Asiatic cobras within the same region, like the Indian cobra (Naja naja) and due to the dangerous toxicity of this species' venom, massive amounts of antivenom are often required for patients. As a result, a monovalent antivenom serum is being developed by the Razi Serum and Vaccine Research Institute in Iran.[13] The untreated mortality rate for this species is 70-75%, which is the highest among all cobra species of the genus Naja.[15] In Central Asia, this species is responsible for a large amount of bites and fatalities.[15] This species is an abundant snake in north east of Iran and is responsible for a very large number of snakebite mortality.[16]

See also

References

  1. ^ "Naja oxiana". The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. http://www.iucnredlist.org. Retrieved 13 January 2012. {{cite web}}: External link in |publisher= (help)
  2. ^ "Naja oxiana". ITIS Standard Report Page. ITIS.gov. Retrieved 13 January 2012.
  3. ^ a b c d e f "Naja oxiana - General Details, Taxonomy and Biology, Venom, Clinical Effects, Treatment, First Aid, Antivenoms". WCH Clinical Toxinology Resource. University of Adelaide. Retrieved 13 January 2012.
  4. ^ a b c d "Species of Asiatic Naja". The Asiatic Cobra Systematics Page. Bangor University. Retrieved 13 January 2012.
  5. ^ "Venom Street (Naja oxiana)". Venom Street Collector and Breeder of Asian Cobras. Venom Street. Retrieved 3 February 2012. {{cite web}}: |first= missing |last= (help)
  6. ^ a b c d "Naja oxiana". Armed Forces Pest Management Board. United States Department of Defense. Retrieved 14 January 2012.
  7. ^ Sharonov, George V.; Feofanov, Alexei V.; Astapova, Maria V.; Rodionov, Dmitriy I.; Utkin, Yuriy N.; Arseniev, Alexander S. (2005). "Cancer cell injury by cytotoxins from cobra venom is mediated through lysosomal damage". Biochemical Journal. 390 (Pt 1): 11–8. doi:10.1042/BJ20041892. PMC 1184559. PMID 15847607. {{cite journal}}: no-break space character in |first1= at position 7 (help); no-break space character in |first2= at position 7 (help); no-break space character in |first3= at position 6 (help); no-break space character in |first4= at position 8 (help); no-break space character in |first5= at position 6 (help); no-break space character in |first6= at position 10 (help)
  8. ^ Dementieva, Daria V.; Bocharov, Eduard V.; Arseniev, Alexander. S. (1999). "Two forms of cytotoxin II (cardiotoxin) from Naja naja oxiana in aqueous solution . Spatial structures with tightly bound water molecules". European Journal of Biochemistry. 263 (1): 152–62. doi:10.1046/j.1432-1327.1999.00478.x. PMID 10429199.
  9. ^ Lysz, Thomas W. (1974). "Convulsant activity of Naja naja oxiana venom and its phospholipase A component". Toxicon. 12 (3): 253–265. doi:10.1016/0041-0101(74)90067-1. {{cite journal}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  10. ^ Khare, AD (1992). "Toxicities, LD50 prediction and in vivo neutralisation of some elapid and viperid venoms". Indian Journal of Experimental Biology. 30 (12): 1158–62. PMID 1294479. Retrieved 6 December 2013. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  11. ^ Brown, John H. (1973). Toxicology and Pharmacology of Venoms from Poisonous Snakes. Springfield, IL USA: Charles C. Thomas Publishers. p. 82. ISBN 0-398-02808-7.
  12. ^ Zug, George R. (1996). Snakes in Question: The Smithsonian Answer Book. Washington D.C., USA: Smithsonian Institution Scholarly Press. ISBN 1-56098-648-4.
  13. ^ a b Akbari, A (2010). "Production of effective antivenin to treat cobra snake (Naja naja oxiana) envenoming". Archives of Razi Institute. 65 (1): 33–37. Retrieved 7 December 2013. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  14. ^ Latifi, M (1984). "Variation in yield and lethality of venoms from Iranian snakes". Toxicon. 22 (3): 373–380. PMID 6474490. {{cite journal}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help)
  15. ^ a b Gopalkrishnakone, Chou, P., LM (1990). Snakes of Medical Importance (Asia-Pacific Region). Singapore: National University of Singapore. ISBN 9971-62-217-3.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)[page needed] Cite error: The named reference "medsnakes" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  16. ^ Latifi, Mahmoud (1984). Snakes of Iran. Society for the Study of Amphibians & Reptiles. ISBN 978-0-91-698422-9.

Further reading

  • Wüster, Wolfgang (1993). "A century of confusion: Asiatic cobras revisited". Vivarium. 4 (4): 14–8.
  • Eichwald, E (1831) Zoologia specialis, quam expositis animalibus tum vivis, tum fossilibus potissimuni rossiae in universum, et poloniae in specie, in usum lectionum publicarum in Universitate Caesarea Vilnensi. Zawadski, Vilnae.
  • Wüster, W.; Thorpe, R. S. (1991). "Asiatic cobras: Systematics and snakebite". Experientia. 47 (2): 205–9. doi:10.1007/BF01945429. PMID 2001726.
  • Wüster, W.; Thorpe, R. S. (1992). "Asiatic Cobras: Population Systematics of the Naja naja Species Complex (Serpentes: Elapidae) in India and Central Asia". Herpetologica. 48 (1): 69–85. JSTOR 3892921.
  • Wüster, Wolfgang (1998). "The cobras of the genus Naja in India". Hamadryad. 23 (1): 15–32.
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