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Although the [[venom]] of the black mamba consists mainly of potent [[neurotoxin]]s,<ref>[cogs.csustan.edu/~tom/bioinfo/groupwork/cobra/cobra-venom.ppt Neurotoxins in Snake Venom]</ref> it also contains [[cardiotoxin]]s.<ref name=MambaCDTX>{{cite journal |authors=van Aswegen G, van Rooyen JM, Fourie C, Oberholzer G. |title=Putative cardiotoxicity of the venoms of three mamba species. |journal=Journal of Wilderness and Environmental Medicine |volume=7|issue=2 |year=May 1996 |pmid=11990104 |url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11990104}}</ref><ref>[http://toxipedia.org/display/toxipedia/Black+mamba Toxipedia (Black Mamba)]</ref> With a {{LD50}} range of 0.25&nbsp;mg/kg—0.32&nbsp;mg/kg, the black mamba's venom is virulently toxic.<ref name='Davidson'/> Based on {{LD50}} toxicology studies, this species is more venomous than all known [[cobra]] (''naja'') species, Australia's [[Acanthophis|Death adder]] and is more venomous than some subspecies of [[krait]] such as the [[Bungarus fasciatus|Banded krait]] (''Bungarus fasciatus'') and even some [[sea snake]]s such as Duadin's sea snake (''Hydrophis nigrocinctus'') and the Annulated sea snake (''Hydrophis cyanocinctus'').<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.kingsnake.com/toxinology/LD50/LD50men.html|title=LD50 Menu|accessdate=2010-04-21}}</ref><ref>[http://www.seanthomas.net/oldsite/ld50tot.html LD50 Menu]</ref>
Although the [[venom]] of the black mamba consists mainly of potent [[neurotoxin]]s,<ref>[cogs.csustan.edu/~tom/bioinfo/groupwork/cobra/cobra-venom.ppt Neurotoxins in Snake Venom]</ref> it also contains [[cardiotoxin]]s.<ref name=MambaCDTX>{{cite journal |authors=van Aswegen G, van Rooyen JM, Fourie C, Oberholzer G. |title=Putative cardiotoxicity of the venoms of three mamba species. |journal=Journal of Wilderness and Environmental Medicine |volume=7|issue=2 |year=May 1996 |pmid=11990104 |url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11990104}}</ref><ref>[http://toxipedia.org/display/toxipedia/Black+mamba Toxipedia (Black Mamba)]</ref> With a {{LD50}} range of 0.25&nbsp;mg/kg—0.32&nbsp;mg/kg, the black mamba's venom is virulently toxic.<ref name='Davidson'/> Based on {{LD50}} toxicology studies, this species is more venomous than all known [[cobra]] (''naja'') species, Australia's [[Acanthophis|Death adder]] and is more venomous than some subspecies of [[krait]] such as the [[Bungarus fasciatus|Banded krait]] (''Bungarus fasciatus'') and even some [[sea snake]]s such as Duadin's sea snake (''Hydrophis nigrocinctus'') and the Annulated sea snake (''Hydrophis cyanocinctus'').<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.kingsnake.com/toxinology/LD50/LD50men.html|title=LD50 Menu|accessdate=2010-04-21}}</ref><ref>[http://www.seanthomas.net/oldsite/ld50tot.html LD50 Menu]</ref>


Although only 10 to 15&nbsp;mg<ref name='Mamba biology'>{{cite web|url=http://biology.unm.edu/toolson/biotox/blackmambafinal.ppt#8|title=Black Mamba Biology|accessdate=13/09/2011}}</ref> is deadly to a human adult, its bite delivers about 100–120&nbsp;mg of venom on average<ref name='Mamba biology'/>, but they can deliver up to 400&nbsp;mg of venom in a single bite<ref name='Mamba biology'/>. It is reported that before the [[antivenom]] was widely available, the mortality rate from a bite was 100%.<ref>[http://animals.nationalgeographic.com/animals/reptiles/black-mamba.html National Geographic - Black Mamba]</ref><ref>[http://www.seanthomas.net/oldsite/danger.html Mortality rate 100%]</ref><ref>[http://www.thirteen.org/pressroom/pdf/nature/season28/Nature28BlackMambarelease.pdf Nature-Black Mamba]</ref><ref>[http://www.pbs.org/wnet/nature/episodes/black-mamba/introduction/5260/ Black Mamba Intro]</ref><ref name='NG'/><ref name='Davidson'/> Black mamba bites can potentially kill a human within 20 minutes or less<ref>[http://animals.nationalgeographic.com/animals/reptiles/black-mamba.html National Geographic - Black Mamba]</ref><ref>[http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/africa/article3529594.ece Death of Nathan Layton]</ref><ref name='Mamba biology'/><ref name='Daniel'/> depending on the nature of the bite and the area bitten, but death usually occurs after 30–60 minutes on average, sometimes even taking up to three hours. British wildlife enthusiast Nathan Layton was bitten near [[Hoedspruit]] by a juvenile black mamba and died less than 30 minutes after being bitten.<ref>[http://http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-530331/British-wildlife-student-dies-girlfriend-minutes-bitten-black-mamba-snake.html British wildlife student dies in front of girlfriend minutes after being bitten by black mamba snake - Mail Online]</ref> The fatality duration and rate depend on various factors, such as the health, size, age, psychological state of the human, the penetration of one or both fangs from the snake, amount of venom injected, location of the bite, and proximity to major blood vessels.<ref name='NG'/> The health of the snake and the interval since it last used its venom mechanism is also important. Presently, there is a polyvalent [[antivenom]] produced by SAIMR (South African Institute for Medical Research) to treat all black mamba bites from different localities.<ref name='Davidson'/>
Although only 10 to 15&nbsp;mg<ref name='Mamba biology'>{{cite web|url=http://biology.unm.edu/toolson/biotox/blackmambafinal.ppt#8|title=Black Mamba Biology|accessdate=13/09/2011}}</ref> is deadly to a human adult, its bite delivers about 100–120&nbsp;mg of venom on average<ref name='Mamba biology'/>, but they can deliver up to 400&nbsp;mg of venom in a single bite<ref name='Mamba biology'/>. It is reported that before the [[antivenom]] was widely available, the mortality rate from a bite was 100%.<ref>[http://animals.nationalgeographic.com/animals/reptiles/black-mamba.html National Geographic - Black Mamba]</ref><ref>[http://www.seanthomas.net/oldsite/danger.html Mortality rate 100%]</ref><ref>[http://www.thirteen.org/pressroom/pdf/nature/season28/Nature28BlackMambarelease.pdf Nature-Black Mamba]</ref><ref>[http://www.pbs.org/wnet/nature/episodes/black-mamba/introduction/5260/ Black Mamba Intro]</ref><ref name='NG'/><ref name='Davidson'/> Black mamba bites can potentially kill a human within 20 minutes or less<ref>[http://animals.nationalgeographic.com/animals/reptiles/black-mamba.html National Geographic - Black Mamba]</ref><ref>[http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/africa/article3529594.ece Death of Nathan Layton]</ref><ref name='Mamba biology'/><ref name='Daniel'/> depending on the nature of the bite and the area bitten, but death usually occurs after 30–60 minutes on average, sometimes even taking up to three hours. British wildlife enthusiast Nathan Layton was bitten in [[Hoedspruit]], a small city near [[Kruger National Park]], by a juvenile black mamba and died in less than 30 minutes after being bitten. Nearby ambulance personnel were called to the scene, but Mr. Layton was already dead by the time they had arrived.<ref>[http://http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-530331/British-wildlife-student-dies-girlfriend-minutes-bitten-black-mamba-snake.html British wildlife student dies in front of girlfriend minutes after being bitten by black mamba snake - Mail Online]</ref> The fatality duration and rate depend on various factors, such as the health, size, age, psychological state of the human, the penetration of one or both fangs from the snake, amount of venom injected, location of the bite, and proximity to major blood vessels.<ref name='NG'/> The health of the snake and the interval since it last used its venom mechanism is also important. Presently, there is a polyvalent [[antivenom]] produced by SAIMR (South African Institute for Medical Research) to treat all black mamba bites from different localities.<ref name='Davidson'/>


If bitten, common symptoms for which to watch are rapid onset of dizziness, coughing or difficulty breathing, and erratic heartbeat.<ref name='Davidson'/> In extreme cases, when the victim has received a large amount of venom, death can result within minutes<ref name='NG'/> from respiratory or cardiac arrest.<ref name='Davidson'/> This is especially true if the victim is bitten in the face or chest area, as a black mamba can rear up around one-third of its body from the ground which puts it at about four feet high. When warding off a threat, the black mamba delivers multiple strikes, injecting large amounts of virulently toxic venom with each strike, often landing bites on the body or head, unlike other snakes. Also, the black mamba's venom has been known to cause [[paralysis]].<ref name='Davidson'/> Death is due to suffocation resulting from paralysis of the respiratory muscles.<ref name='Davidson'>{{cite web|url=http://drdavidson.ucsd.edu/portals/0/snake/dendroa3.htm|title=IMMEDIATE FIRST AID|accessdate=2010-05-12|last=Davidson|first=Terence|publisher=University of California, San Diego}}</ref>
If bitten, common symptoms for which to watch are rapid onset of dizziness, coughing or difficulty breathing, and erratic heartbeat.<ref name='Davidson'/> In extreme cases, when the victim has received a large amount of venom, death can result within minutes<ref name='NG'/> from respiratory or cardiac arrest.<ref name='Davidson'/> This is especially true if the victim is bitten in the face or chest area, as a black mamba can rear up around one-third of its body from the ground which puts it at about four feet high. When warding off a threat, the black mamba delivers multiple strikes, injecting large amounts of virulently toxic venom with each strike, often landing bites on the body or head, unlike other snakes. Also, the black mamba's venom has been known to cause [[paralysis]].<ref name='Davidson'/> Death is due to suffocation resulting from paralysis of the respiratory muscles.<ref name='Davidson'>{{cite web|url=http://drdavidson.ucsd.edu/portals/0/snake/dendroa3.htm|title=IMMEDIATE FIRST AID|accessdate=2010-05-12|last=Davidson|first=Terence|publisher=University of California, San Diego}}</ref>

Revision as of 18:24, 13 October 2011

For other uses, see Black mamba (disambiguation).

black mamba
Scientific classification
Kingdom:
Animalia
Phylum:
Chordata
Subphylum:
Vertebrata
Class:
Reptilia
Order:
Squamata
Suborder:
Serpentes
Family:
Elapidae
Genus:
Dendroaspis
Species:
D. polylepis
Binomial name
Dendroaspis polylepis
Range of the Black Mamba

The black mamba (Dendroaspis polylepis) is the longest venomous snake in Africa, averaging around 2.5 meters (8.2 ft), and sometimes growing up to 4.3 meters (14 ft). Its name is derived from the black colouration inside the mouth rather than the actual colour of the skin which varies from dull yellowish-green to a gun-metal grey. It is the fastest snake in the world, capable of moving at 4.32 to 5.4 metres per second (16–20 km/h, 10–12 mph).[1]

Taxonomy

The eastern green mamba, Dendroaspis angusticeps, and the black mamba, Dendroaspis polylepis were considered a single species from 1896, when Boulenger combined them,[3] until 1946, when Dr. Vivian FitzSimons split them into separate species.[4]

Etymology

The snake's scientific name is Dendroaspis polylepis: Dendroaspis meaning "tree asp", and polylepis meaning "many scaled." The name "black mamba" is given to the snake not because of its body colour but because of its ink-black mouth.[1] It displays this physical attribute when threatened.[1]

Description

The black mamba's back skin colour is olive, brownish, gray, or sometimes khaki.[5] The adult snake's length is on average 2.5 meters (8.2 ft),[1] but some specimens have reached lengths of 4.3 to 4.5 meters (14 to 15 ft).[5] Black mambas weigh about 1.6 kilograms (3.5 lb).[1] on average. The species is the second longest venomous snake in the world, exceeded in length only by the king cobra.[5] The snake has an average life span of 11 years in the wild.[1]

Distribution

The black mamba lives in Africa, occupying the following range: Northeast Democratic Republic of the Congo, southwestern Sudan to Ethiopia, Eritrea, Somalia, Kenya, Eastern Uganda, Tanzania, southwards to Mozambique, Swaziland, Malawi, Zambia, Zimbabwe and Botswana to KwaZulu-Natal in South Africa, and Namibia; then northeasterly through Angola to southeastern Zaire.[6] The black mamba is not commonly found above altitudes of 1000 metres (3280.8 feet), although the distribution of black mamba does reach 1800 metres (5905.5 feet) in Kenya and 1650 metres (5413.3 feet) in Zambia.[6] The black mamba was also recorded in 1954 in West Africa in the Dakar region of Senegal.[6] However, this observation, and a subsequent observation that identified a second specimen in the region in 1956, has not been confirmed and thus the snake's distribution there is inconclusive.[6] The black mamba's distribution contains gaps within the Central African Republic, Chad, Nigeria and Mali. These gaps may lead physicians to misidentify the black mamba and administer an ineffective antivenom.[6]

Habitat

The black mamba has adapted to a variety of climates ranging from savanna, woodlands, rocky slopes, dense forests and even humid swamps.[6] The grassland and savanna woodland/shrubs that extend through central, eastern and southern Africa are the black mamba's typical habitat.[6] The black mamba prefers more arid environments such as light woodland, rocky outcrops, and semi-arid dry bush country.[6]

Environmental encroachment

The sugarcane fields that dominate the habitat of the black mamba.

The black mamba's environment is rapidly diminishing. In Swaziland alone, 75% of the population is employed by subsistence farming.[7] Because of agricultural encroachment on the black mamba's habitat, the snake is commonly found in sugarcane fields. The black mamba will climb to the top of the sugarcane to bask in the sun and possibly wait for prey. The majority of human attacks occur in the sugarcane fields of east and southern Africa in which are employed thousands of workers for manual labour, as cane growing is not a highly mechanised industry. This encroachment on the snake's territory contributes to potentially dangerous human contact with these venomous snakes.[1]

Behaviour

A black mamba climbing a branch, in London Zoo.

The black mamba uses its speed to escape threats, not to hunt prey.[1] It is known to be capable of reaching speeds of around 20 kilometers per hour (12 mph), traveling with up to a third of its body raised off the ground.[1] Over long distances the black mamba can travel 11 to 19 kilometers per hour (6.8 to 11.8 mph), but in short bursts it can reach a speed of 16 to 20 kilometers per hour (9.9 to 12.4 mph),or even 23 kilometers per hour (14 mph) [8] making it the fastest land snake.[9] It is shy and secretive; it always seeks to escape when a confrontation occurs.[1] If a black mamba is cornered it mimics a cobra by spreading a neck-flap, exposing its black mouth, and hissing.[1] If this endeavor to scare away the attacker fails, the black mamba may strike repeatedly.[1] The black mamba is a diurnal snake. Although its scientific name seems to be indicative of tree climbing, the black mamba is rarely an arboreal snake.[9] These snakes retreat when threatened by predators.[8]

Hunting and prey

As stated, the black mamba is diurnal. It is an ambush predator that waits for prey to get close.[8] If the prey attempts to escape, the black mamba will follow up its initial bite with a series of strikes.[8] When hunting, the black mamba has been known to raise a large portion of its body off the ground.[8] The black mamba will release larger prey after biting it, but smaller prey, such as birds or rats, are held onto until the prey's muscles stop moving.[8] They have been known to prey on bushbabies, bats, and small chickens.[4]

Venom

Although the venom of the black mamba consists mainly of potent neurotoxins,[10] it also contains cardiotoxins.[11][12] With a LD50 range of 0.25 mg/kg—0.32 mg/kg, the black mamba's venom is virulently toxic.[13] Based on LD50 toxicology studies, this species is more venomous than all known cobra (naja) species, Australia's Death adder and is more venomous than some subspecies of krait such as the Banded krait (Bungarus fasciatus) and even some sea snakes such as Duadin's sea snake (Hydrophis nigrocinctus) and the Annulated sea snake (Hydrophis cyanocinctus).[14][15]

Although only 10 to 15 mg[16] is deadly to a human adult, its bite delivers about 100–120 mg of venom on average[16], but they can deliver up to 400 mg of venom in a single bite[16]. It is reported that before the antivenom was widely available, the mortality rate from a bite was 100%.[17][18][19][20][1][13] Black mamba bites can potentially kill a human within 20 minutes or less[21][22][16][23] depending on the nature of the bite and the area bitten, but death usually occurs after 30–60 minutes on average, sometimes even taking up to three hours. British wildlife enthusiast Nathan Layton was bitten in Hoedspruit, a small city near Kruger National Park, by a juvenile black mamba and died in less than 30 minutes after being bitten. Nearby ambulance personnel were called to the scene, but Mr. Layton was already dead by the time they had arrived.[24] The fatality duration and rate depend on various factors, such as the health, size, age, psychological state of the human, the penetration of one or both fangs from the snake, amount of venom injected, location of the bite, and proximity to major blood vessels.[1] The health of the snake and the interval since it last used its venom mechanism is also important. Presently, there is a polyvalent antivenom produced by SAIMR (South African Institute for Medical Research) to treat all black mamba bites from different localities.[13]

If bitten, common symptoms for which to watch are rapid onset of dizziness, coughing or difficulty breathing, and erratic heartbeat.[13] In extreme cases, when the victim has received a large amount of venom, death can result within minutes[1] from respiratory or cardiac arrest.[13] This is especially true if the victim is bitten in the face or chest area, as a black mamba can rear up around one-third of its body from the ground which puts it at about four feet high. When warding off a threat, the black mamba delivers multiple strikes, injecting large amounts of virulently toxic venom with each strike, often landing bites on the body or head, unlike other snakes. Also, the black mamba's venom has been known to cause paralysis.[13] Death is due to suffocation resulting from paralysis of the respiratory muscles.[13]

Many herpetologists, including South African-born herpetologist Austin Stevens, regard the black mamba as one of, if not the deadliest and most feared snake in the world[25] due to various factors including the toxicity and high yield of its venom, the fact that untreated bites have a mortality rate of 100%, its high level of aggression, its speed, agility, size, and other factors.[26][23] Nevertheless, attacks on humans by black mambas are rare, as the snakes usually avoid confrontation with humans and their occurrence in highly-populated areas is not very common compared to many other African species of venomous snakes.

Toxin

Mamba venom is made up mostly of dendrotoxins (dendrotoxin-k - "Toxin K"[27], dendrotoxin-1 - "Toxin 1"[28], dendrotoxin-3 - "Toxin 3"[29], dendrotoxin-7 - "Toxin 7"[29]), and calciseptine[30]. The dendrotoxins disrupt the exogenous process of muscle contraction by means of the sodium potassium pump. Toxin K is a selective blocker of voltage-gated potassium channels[31], Toxin 1 inhibits the K+ channels at the pre and post-synaptic level in the intestinal smooth muscle. It also inhibits Ca2+-sensitive K+ channels from rat skeletal muscle‚ incorporated into planar bilayers (Kd = 90 nM in 50 mM KCl)[32], Toxin 3 inhibits M4 receptors, while Toxin 7 inhibits M1 receptors.[29] The calciseptine is a 60 amino acid peptide which acts as a smooth muscle relaxant and an inhibitor of cardiac contractions. It blocks K+ induced contraction in aortic smooth muscle and it blocks spontaneous contraction of uterine muscle and portal vein.[33][16] The venom is highly specific and virulently toxic. In an experiment, the death time of a mouse after subcutaneous injection of some toxins studied is around 7 minutes. However, a black mamba venom can kill a mouse after 4.5 minutes.[23]

Predators

Yellow mongoose

The main predators of the black mamba are humans and birds of prey.[4] The Egyptian mongoose has shown a high level of resistance to three species of venomous snake Vipera palaestinae, Walterinnesia aegyptia, & Naja nigricollis.[34] This resistance is caused by mutations in their nicotinic acetylcholine receptor, but it is not fully known if it is completely resistant to the venom of the black mamba as some dendrotoxins (particularly "Toxin 1" or α-dendrotoxin) has shown an ability to bind to nicotinic acetylcholine receptors in the mongoose.[35] However, the mongoose prey on very young snakes and eggs. Mongooses often attack young snakes as they can be killed with ease, while large black mambas may fight back and may be too quick. Cape file snakes have also been known to predate on young black mambas.[4]

Gallery

  • Black mamba at Wilmington's Serpentarium
    Black mamba at Wilmington's Serpentarium
  • Close-up of a black mamba's head
    Close-up of a black mamba's head
  • A black mamba at the St Louis zoo
    A black mamba at the St Louis zoo

References

  1. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p "Black mamba". National Geographic Society. Retrieved 2010-03-12.
  2. ^ The Reptile Database. www.reptile-database.org.
  3. ^ Boulenger, G.A. 1896. Catalogue of the Snakes in the British Museum (Natural History), Volume III. London. p. 437.
  4. ^ a b c d Haagner, G.V; Dr. Morgan (1993). "The maintenance and propagation of the Black mamba Dendroaspis polylepis at the Manyeleti Reptile Centre, Eastern Transvaal" (PDF). International Zoo Yearbook. Zoological Society of London. Retrieved 2010-05-19.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  5. ^ a b c Mattison, Chris (1987-01-01). Snakes of the World. New York: Facts on File, Inc. p. 164.
  6. ^ a b c d e f g h Håkansson, Thomas (1983-01-01). "On the Distribution of the Black Mamba (Dendroaspis polylepis) in West Africa". Journal of Herpetology. Society for the Study of Amphibians and Reptiles. JSTOR 1563464. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  7. ^ "UNDP: Human development indices – Table 3: Human and income poverty (Population living below national poverty line (2000-2007))" (PDF). United Nations Development Programme. 28 November 2008. Retrieved 29 December 2009.
  8. ^ a b c d e f Richardson, Adele (2004). Mambas. Mankato, Minnesota: Capstone Press. p. 25. Retrieved 2010-05-19.
  9. ^ a b Maina, J.N (1989-12). "The morphology of the lung of the black mamba Dendroaspis polylepis". The Journal of Anatomy. PMC 1256818. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  10. ^ [cogs.csustan.edu/~tom/bioinfo/groupwork/cobra/cobra-venom.ppt Neurotoxins in Snake Venom]
  11. ^ "Putative cardiotoxicity of the venoms of three mamba species". Journal of Wilderness and Environmental Medicine. 7 (2). May 1996. PMID 11990104. {{cite journal}}: Cite uses deprecated parameter |authors= (help)
  12. ^ Toxipedia (Black Mamba)
  13. ^ a b c d e f g Davidson, Terence. "IMMEDIATE FIRST AID". University of California, San Diego. Retrieved 2010-05-12.
  14. ^ "LD50 Menu". Retrieved 2010-04-21.
  15. ^ LD50 Menu
  16. ^ a b c d e "Black Mamba Biology". Retrieved 13/09/2011. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)
  17. ^ National Geographic - Black Mamba
  18. ^ Mortality rate 100%
  19. ^ Nature-Black Mamba
  20. ^ Black Mamba Intro
  21. ^ National Geographic - Black Mamba
  22. ^ Death of Nathan Layton
  23. ^ a b c Strydom, Daniel (1971-11-12). "Snake Venom Toxins" (PDF). The Journal of Biological Chemistry. Retrieved 2010-04-24.
  24. ^ British wildlife student dies in front of girlfriend minutes after being bitten by black mamba snake - Mail Online
  25. ^ Manbir Online - Snakes
  26. ^ Austin Steven's Official Website
  27. ^ "[Nuclear magnetic resonance solution structure of dendrotoxin K from the venom of Dendroaspis polylepis polylepis.]". Journal of Molecular Biology. 234 (3): 735–50. 1993. PMID 8254670. {{cite journal}}: Cite uses deprecated parameter |authors= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  28. ^ "[Potassium channels and epilepsy: evidence that the epileptogenic toxin, dendrotoxin, binds to potassium channel proteins.]". Epilepsy Research Supplement. 4: 263-73. 1991. PMID 1815606. {{cite journal}}: Cite uses deprecated parameter |authors= (help)
  29. ^ a b c Rang, H. P. (2003). Pharamacology. Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone. p. 139. ISBN 0-443-07145-4.
  30. ^ "[Calciseptine, a peptide isolated from black mamba venom, is a specific blocker of the L-type calcium channel.]". Proceedings of the National Academy of Science of the United States of America. 88 (6): 2437–2440. 15 March. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= and |year= / |date= mismatch (help); Cite uses deprecated parameter |authors= (help); Unknown parameter |PMCID= ignored (|pmc= suggested) (help)
  31. ^ "[Nuclear magnetic resonance solution structure of dendrotoxin K from the venom of Dendroaspis polylepis polylepis.]". Journal of Molecular Biology. 234 (3): 735–50. 1993. PMID 8254670. {{cite journal}}: Cite uses deprecated parameter |authors= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  32. ^ "[Potassium channels and epilepsy: evidence that the epileptogenic toxin, dendrotoxin, binds to potassium channel proteins.]". Epilepsy Research Supplement. 4: 263-73. 1991. PMID 1815606. {{cite journal}}: Cite uses deprecated parameter |authors= (help)
  33. ^ Calciseptine study
  34. ^ Ovadia, M. and Kochva. E. (1977) Neutralization of Viperide and Elapidae snake venoms by sera of different animals. Toxicon 15. 541-547
  35. ^ Conti-Tronconi BM, Raftery MA. "Nicotinic acetylcholine receptor contains multiple binding sites: evidence from binding of alpha-dendrotoxin". 83 (17): 6646-50. PMID 3462717. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  • Günther, A. 1864. Report on a Collection of Reptiles and Fishes made by Dr. Kirk in the Zambesi and Nyassa Regions. Proc. Zool. Soc. London, volume 1864, pp. 303-314.

External links

Media related to Dendroaspis polylepis at Wikimedia Commons

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Black_mamba&oldid=455410196"