Siberian tiger: Difference between revisions

Siberian tiger
Conservation status
	; Endangered (IUCN 3.1)
Scientific classification
Kingdom:	Animalia
Phylum:	Chordata
Class:	Mammalia
Order:	Carnivora
Family:	Felidae
Subfamily:	Pantherinae
Genus:	Panthera
Species:	P. tigris
Subspecies:	P. tigris altaica
Trinomial name
	Panthera tigris altaica; Temminck, 1884
	Distribution of the Siberian tiger (in red)

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The Siberian tiger (Panthera tigris altaica), also known as the Amur tiger, is a tiger subspecies inhabiting mainly the Sikhote Alin mountain region with a small subpopulation in southwest Primorye province in the Russian Far East. In 2005, there were 331–393 adult-subadult Amur tigers in this region, with a breeding adult population of about 250 individuals. The population has been stable for more than a decade due to intensive conservation efforts, but partial surveys conducted after 2005 indicate that the Russian tiger population is declining.^[1]

The Siberian tiger together with the Caspian and Bengal tiger subspecies represents the largest living felid and ranks among the biggest felids that ever existed.^[2]

Phylogeographic analysis with extant tiger subspecies suggests that less than 10,000 years ago the ancestor of Amur and Caspian tigers colonized Central Asia via the Silk Road from eastern China then subsequently traversed Siberia eastward to establish the Amur tiger population in the Russian Far East.^[3]

Characteristics

The Siberian tiger is typically 5–10 cm (2.0–3.9 in) taller than the Bengal tiger, which is about 107–110 cm (42–43 in) tall.^[4] Males measure 270–330 cm (110–130 in) long and weigh 180–306 kg (397–675 lb); females measure 240–275 cm (94–108 in) long and weigh 100–167 kg (220–368 lb).^[5] The largest male, with largely assured references, measured 350 cm (140 in) "over curves" (330 cm (130 in) between pegs) in total length.^[6] The tail length in fully grown males is about 1 m (39 in). The bodies of the now extinct western populations were generally less massive than that of their Far Eastern cousins, and their average size was slightly less. In Turkestan, male tigers exceeded 200 cm (79 in) in length, though an estimated body length of 270 cm (110 in) was recorded. Females were smaller in size, normally ranging between 160–180 cm (63–71 in). The maximum known weight was 240 kg (530 lb). Although tigers from Turkestan never reached the size of Far Eastern tigers, there are records of very large individuals of the former population.^[7] Weights of up to 318 kg (701 lb) have been recorded and exceptionally large males weighing up to 384 kg (847 lb) are mentioned in the literature but, according to Mazák, none of these cases can be confirmed via reliable sources.^[6] A further unconfirmed report tells of a male tiger shot in the Sikhote-Alin Mountains in 1950 weighing 384 kg (847 lb) with an estimated length of 3.48 m (11.4 ft). In some cases, Siberian tigers in captivity have reached up to 465 kg (1,025 lb), like the case of the tiger "Jaipur".^[8]

The "Siberian Tiger Project", which has operated from Sikhote-Alin Zapovednik since 1992, had found that the heaviest male (Pt-20) weighed 205 kg (452 lb) and seemed to be the largest that they were able to verify, albeit from a limited number of specimens.^[9] According to modern research of wild Siberian tigers in Sikhote-Alin, an average adult male tiger (>35 months) weighs 176.4 kg (389 lb) (the average asymptotic limit, gives 222.3 kg (490 lb) for male tigers) and an adult tigress 117.9 kg (260 lb). The mean weight of historical Siberian tigers is supposed to be higher: 215.3 kg (475 lb) for male tigers and 137.5 kg (303 lb) for females.^[10] At least one authority suspects that this is the difference between real weights and hunter's estimates.^[4] Dale Miquelle, program director of the Siberian Tiger Project, writes that, despite repeated claims in the popular literature that the Siberian is the largest of all tigers, their measurements on more than fifty captured individuals suggest that it body size is, in fact, similar to that of Bengal tigers.^[11] The body measurements, taken by the scientist of the Siberian Tiger Project in Sikhote-Alin, states that the average head and body length, measured in straight line, is of 195 cm (77 in) (range 178–208 cm (70–82 in)) for the males and 174 cm (69 in) (range 167–182 cm (66–72 in)) for the females. The average tail measure 99 cm (39 in) in the males and 91 cm (36 in) in the females. The longest male (“Maurice”) measured 309 cm (122 in) in total length (tail of 101 cm (40 in)) and had a chest girth of 127 cm (50 in). The longest female (“Maria Ivanna”) measured 270 cm (110 in) in total length (tail of 88 cm (35 in)) and had a chest girth of 108 cm (43 in). These measurements show that the present Amur tiger is longer than the Bengal tiger and the African lion.^[12]

Skull

The skull of the Siberian tiger is distinguished by its larger overall size, as well as the development of its sagittal crest, whose height and strength exceeds that of other tigers and the lion.^[7] The skull prominences, especially sagittal crest and crista occipitalis are very high and strong in old males, and often much more massive than usually observed in the biggest skulls of Indian tigers. The size variation in skulls of Siberian tigers ranges from 331 to 383 mm (13.0 to 15.1 in) in 9 individuals measured. A female skull is always smaller and never so heavily-built and robust as that of a male. The height of the sagittal crest in its middle-part reaches as much as 27 mm (1.1 in), and in its posterior part up to 46 mm (1.8 in).^[13]

Female skulls range from 279.7 to 310.2 mm (11.01 to 12.21 in). The skull length of the males from Turkestan had a maximum length of 297.0 to 365.8 mm (11.69 to 14.40 in), while that of females measured 195.7 to 255.5 mm (7.70 to 10.06 in). In January 1954, a tiger killed on the Sumbar in Kopet-Dag had a skull greatest length of 385 mm (15.2 in), which is considerably more than the known maximum for this population and slightly exceeds that of most Far Eastern tigers. However, it's condylobasal length was of only 305 mm (12.0 in), smaller than those of the Amur tigers, with a maximum recorded condylobasal length of 342 mm (13.5 in).^[12] The biggest skull of a Siberian tiger from Manchuria measured 406 mm (16.0 in) in length, which is about 20–30 mm (0.79–1.18 in) more than the maximum skull lengths achieved by tigers from the Amur region and northern India.^[14]

Fur and coat

The ground colour of Siberian tigers' pelage is often very pale, especially in winter coat. However, variations within populations may be considerable. Individual variation is also found in form, length, and partly in colour, of the dark stripes, which have been described as being dark brown rather than black.^[13] The fur of the Siberian tiger is moderately thick, coarse and sparse compared to that of other felids living in the former Soviet Union. Compared to the now-extinct westernmost populations, the Far Eastern Siberian tiger's summer and winter coats contrast sharply with other subspecies. Generally, the coat of western populations was brighter and more uniform than that of the Far Eastern populations. The summer coat is coarse, while the winter coat is denser, longer, softer, and silkier. The winter fur often appears quite shaggy on the trunk, and is markedly longer on the head, almost covering the ears. The whiskers and hair on the back of the head and the top of the neck are also greatly elongated. The background color of the winter coat is generally less bright and rusty compared to that of the summer coat. Due to the winter fur's greater length, the stripes appear broader with less defined outlines. The summer fur on the back is 15–17 mm (0.59–0.67 in) long, 30–50 mm (1.2–2.0 in) along the top of the neck, 25–35 mm (0.98–1.38 in) on the abdomen, and 14–16 mm (0.55–0.63 in) on the tail. The winter fur on the back is 40–50 mm (1.6–2.0 in), 70–110 mm (2.8–4.3 in) on the top of the neck, 70–95 mm (2.8–3.7 in) on the throat, 60–100 mm (2.4–3.9 in) on the chest and 65–105 mm (2.6–4.1 in) on the abdomen. The whiskers are 90–115 mm (3.5–4.5 in).^[7]

Distribution and habitat

The geographical range of Amur tigers in the Russian Far East stretches south to north for almost 1,000 km (620 mi) throughout the length of Primorsky Krai and into southern Khabarovsk Krai east and south of the Amur River. They also occur within the Eastern Manchurian mountain system, which crosses into Russia from China at several places in southwest Primorye. In both regions, peaks are generally 500 to 800 m (1,600 to 2,600 ft) above sea level, with only a few reaching 1,000 m (3,300 ft) or more. This region represents a merger zone of two bioregions: the East Asian coniferous-decidous complex and the northern boreal complex, resulting in a mosaic of forest types that vary with elevation, topography and past history. Key habitats for the Amur tiger are Korean pine broadleaf forests with a complex composition and structure. The ungulate complex is represented by red deer, wild boar, sika deer, roe deer, Manchurian moose, musk deer and ghoral.^[15]

The Siberian tiger is mostly confined to high mountains, having been displaced by humans from lower areas. Its most common habitats are mountain river valleys and pads overgrown with pine and oak, as well as in mountains teeming with deciduous shrubs or in oak or nut-tree groves. It travels only through dense spruce forests, and is attracted to rocky areas and forests abundant with wild boar, wapiti and moose. In times of food scarcity, it can travel through village outskirts and hay fields. The tiger avoids areas of deep snow due to the scarcity of game, as well as the frost causing the tiger's presence to be more conspicuous. There is evidence that the Siberian tiger crossed into Alaska over the Beringian land bridge during the Pleistocene. It is possible that the Siberian tiger could be reintroduced to North America as part of Pleistocene rewilding.^{[citation needed]}

The wild population of Siberian tigers comprises several hundred. A majority of these tigers live in eastern Russia's birch forests, though some exist in China and North Korea.^[16]

Ecology and behavior

File:Tiger chasing a deer.jpg

Taxidermy exhibit portraying a Siberian tiger chasing a deer

Between January 1992 and November 1994, 11 tigers were captured, fitted with radio-collars and monitored for more than 15 months in the eastern slopes of the Sikhote-Alin mountain range. Results of this study indicate that their distribution was more closely associated with distribution of red deer than any other prey species; red deer plus any other prey species provided consistently high measures of weighted mean overlap; the distribution of preferred habitat of key prey species was an accurate predictor of tiger distribution.^[15]

Diet

In the southeast Trans-Caucasus, the Siberian tiger's main prey was wild boar, though it occasionally fed on roe deer, red deer and domestic animals such as dogs, pigs, sheep, and cattle in winter. Tigers in Iran ate the same species with the addition of gazelle. The Siberian tiger's prey in Turkmenia, Uzbekistan and Kazakhstan was primarily boar, as well as Bactrian deer. In the lower Amu Darya River, tigers sometimes preyed on golden jackals, jungle cats, lynx, and dholes. On the Zhana-Darya and around the Aral Sea in Kazakhstan, as well as boar, the tiger fed on saiga, goitered gazelle, wild horses, Mongolian wild ass and argali. In Tajikistan and other regions of central Asia, as well as Kazakhstan, tigers frequently attacked dogs, horses and rarely bactrian camels. In Baikal, the Siberian tiger fed on wild boar, roe deer, Manchurian wapiti, moose and livestock.^[7]

In the Amur region, the tiger preys primarily on Red Deer and Wild Boar, which make up 65-90% of its diet in the Russian Far East. Other important prey species are Manchurian wapiti, moose, Siberian roe deer, sika deer, musk deer and goral. It will also take smaller prey like lagomorphs (hares, rabbits, and pikas) and fish, including salmon.^[6] Tigers may prey on both Brown and Black Bears when ungulate populations decrease.^[7]

In Pleistocene Alaska, prey were Moose, sitka deer, caribou, wood bison, mountain goat, dall sheep, musk ox and saiga antelope.^{[citation needed]}

Reproduction

Siberian tigers reach sexual maturity at four years of age. They mate at any time of the year. A female signals her receptiveness by leaving urine deposits and scratch marks on trees. She will spend 5 or 6 days with the male, during which she is receptive for three days. Gestation lasts from 3 to 3½ months. Litter size is normally two or four cubs but there can be as many as six. The cubs are born blind in a sheltered den and are left alone when the female leaves to hunt for food.^[4]^[17]

Cubs are divided equally between genders at birth. However, by adulthood there are usually two to four females for every male. The female cubs remain with their mothers longer, and later they establish territories close to their original ranges. Males, on the other hand, travel unaccompanied and range farther earlier in their lives, making them more vulnerable to poachers and other tigers.^[4]

Interspecific predatory relationships

Asian Black Bears and Ussuri Brown Bears constitute 5-8% of the Siberian tiger's diet.^[6] The brown bear's input is estimated to be 1-1.5% by one source.^[18] However, another source states that such attacks are rare and do not have any actual significance because Siberian tigers are almost extinct.^[19] Siberian tigers most typically attack brown bears in the winter, in the hibernaculum. ^[20] Certain tigers have been reported to imitate the calls of Asiatic black bears to attract them.^[21] Brown bears are typically attacked by tigers more often than black bears, due to their habit of living in more open areas and their inability to climb trees. When hunting bears, tigers will position themselves from the leeward side of a rock or fallen tree, waiting for the bear to pass by. When the bear passes, the tiger will spring from an overhead position and grab the bear from under the chin with one forepaw and the throat with the other. The immobilized bear is then killed with a bite to the spinal column. After killing a bear, the tiger will concentrate its feeding on the bear's fat deposits, such as the back, hams and groin.^[7] Tiger attacks on bears tend to occur when ungulate populations decrease. While tigers can successfully hunt bears, there are also records of brown bears killing tigers, either in disputes over prey or in self defense, and in at least one instance, of a bear consuming a tiger.^[7]^[22]^[23] There have been observations of bears that changed their path after coming across tiger trails, as well as of bears following tiger tracks with no signs of fear and sleeping in the same den.^[7]^[24] However, despite the threat of predation, some brown bears actually benefit from the tiger's presence by appropriating tiger kills that the bears may not be able to successfully hunt themselves, as bears often dominate these disputes over kills.^[25] Indeed, Russian researchers have identified specific "satellite bears" who regularly "follow tigers over extensive periods of time, sequentially usurping kills" by tracking the tigers in the spring snow.^[26]

In areas where wolves and tigers share ranges, the two species typically display a great deal of dietary overlap, resulting in intense competition. Wolf and tiger interactions are well documented in Sikhote-Alin, which until the beginning of the 20th century, held very few wolves. It is thought by certain experts that wolf numbers increased in the region after tigers were largely eliminated during the Russian colonization in the late 19th century and early 20th century. This is corroborated by native inhabitants of the region claiming that they had no memory of wolves inhabiting Sikhote-Alin until the 1930s, when tiger numbers decreased.^[27] Tigers depress wolf numbers, either to the point of localized extinction or to such low numbers as to make them a functionally insignificant component of the ecosystem. Wolves appear capable of escaping competitive exclusion from tigers only when human pressure decreases tiger numbers.^[28] Today wolves are considered scarce in tiger inhabited areas, being found in scattered pockets, and usually seen travelling as loners or in small groups. First hand accounts on interactions between the two species indicate that tigers occasionally chase wolves from their kills, while wolves will scavenge from tiger kills. Tigers are not known to prey on wolves, though there are four records of tigers killing wolves without consuming them.^[27] This competitive exclusion of wolves by tigers has been used by Russian conservationists to convince hunters in the Far East to tolerate the big cats, as they limit ungulate populations less than wolves, and are effective in controlling wolf numbers.^[29]

Threats

In the early years of the Russian Civil War, both Red and White armies based in Vladivostok nearly wiped out the local Siberian tigers. In 1935, when the Manchurian Chinese were driven back across the Amur and the Ussuri, the tigers had already withdrawn from their northern and western range. The few that remained in the East Manchurian mountains were cut off from the main population by the building of railroads. Within a few years, the last viable Siberian tiger population was confined to Ussuriland. Legal tiger hunting within the Soviet Union would continue until 1947 when it was officially prohibited. In 1962, the last tiger in Heilongjiang received protection. In the mid 1980s, it was estimated that the Siberian tiger population consisted of approximately 250 animals.^[4]

In 1987, law and order almost entirely broke down due to the impending dissolution of the Soviet Union. Subsequent illegal deforestation and bribery of park rangers made the poaching of Siberian tigers easier, once again putting the subspecies at risk from extinction.^[4]

Conservation

In 1992, the Siberian Tiger Project was founded, Since then, the Siberian tiger population has seen a steady recovery and stabilization. The basis of the success has largely been on the meticulous research carried out on these tigers which led to the longest ongoing study of a single tiger, Olga Project Tiger #1. Through this the project was able to focus their conservation efforts to decrease tiger mortality and to improve the quality of their habitat as well. The project included anti-poaching patrols, consultation with local governments regarding human-tiger conflicts, reducing the occurrences of clearcut logging, and other habitat depletion activities.^[30]

Re-population ideas

In 2010, Russia exchanged 2 captive Amur tigers for Persian Leopards with the Iran Government, as conservation groups of both countries have agreed on restocking these animals back into the wild within the next 5 years. Some experts, however, doubt the plan as they feel that this is a political publicity exercise.^[31] On December 30, 2010, one of the tigers exchanged died in Eram Zoo in Tehran.^[32]

Stimulated by recent findings that the Amur tiger is the closest relative of the Caspian tiger, discussions started if the Amur tiger could be an appropriate subspecies for reintroduction into a save place in Central Asia. The Amu-Darya Delta was suggested as a potential site for such a project. A feasibility study was initiated to investigate if the area is suitable and if such an initiative would receive support from relevant decision makers. A viable tiger population of about 100 animals would require at least 5,000 ha (19 sq mi) of large tracts of contiguous habitat with rich prey populations. Such habitat is not available at this stage and can not be provided in the short term. The proposed region is therefore unsuitable for the reintroduction, at least at this stage of developments.^[33]

In captivity

The large, distinctive and powerful cats are popular zoo exhibits. The Siberian tiger is bred under the auspices of the Species Survival Plan (SSP), in a project based on 83 tigers captured in the wild. According to most experts, this population is large enough to stay stable and genetically healthy. Today, approximately 160 Siberian tigers participate in the SSP, which makes it the most extensively bred tiger subspecies within the program. There are currently no more than around 255 tigers in the tiger SSP from three different subspecies. Developed in 1982, the Species Survival Plan for the Siberian tiger is the longest running program for a tiger subspecies. It has been very fortunate and productive, and the breeding program for the Siberian tiger has actually been used as a good example when new programs have been designed to save other animal species from extinction.^{[citation needed]}

File:Amur Tiger2.JPG

Siberian Tiger at Colchester Zoo

The Siberian tiger population in the framework of the European Endangered Species Programme numbers about 230 individuals, including wild-caught founders.^{[citation needed]}

The Siberian tiger is not very difficult to breed in captivity, but the possibility of survival for animals bred in captivity released into the wild is small. Conservation efforts that secure the wild population are therefore still imperative. If a captive bred Siberian tiger were to be released into the wild, it would lack the necessary hunting skills and starve to death. Captive bred tigers can also approach humans and villages, since they have learned to associate humans with feeding and lack the natural shyness of wild tigers. In a worst-case scenario, starving tigers could even become man-eaters. Since tigers must be taught how to hunt by their mothers when they are still cubs, a program that aimed to release captive bred Siberian tigers into the wild would create great difficulties.

In 1986, the Chinese government established the world's largest Siberian tiger breeding base "Heilongjiang Northeast Tiger Forest Park (黑龙江东北虎林园)"^[34] and was meant to build a Siberian tiger gene pool to ensure the genetic diversity of Siberian tigers. Liu Dan, Chief Engineer of the Heilongjiang Northeast Tiger Forest Park, introduced a measure such that the Park and its existing tiger population would be further divided into two parts, one as the protective species for genetic management and the other as the ornamental species. It was discovered that when the Heilongjiang Northeast Tiger Forest Park was founded it had only 8 tigers, but according to the current breeding rate of tigers at the park, the worldwide number of Siberian tigers will break through 1,000 in late 2010.^[35]

Nearly 6,000 tigers of all species are kept in captivity in China, but just 50 to 60 are left in the wild, including about 20 Siberian tigers.^[36]

Genetic research

Several reports have been published since the 1990s on the genetic makeup of the Siberian tiger and its relationship to other subspecies. One of the most important outcomes has been the discovery of low genetic variability in the wild population, especially when it comes to maternal or mitochondrial DNA lineages.^[37] It seems that a single mtDNA haplotype almost completely dominates the maternal lineages of wild Siberian tigers. On the other hand, captive tigers appear to show higher mtDNA diversity. This may suggest that the subspecies has experienced a very recent genetic bottleneck caused by human pressure, with the founders of the captive population being captured when genetic variability was higher in the wild.^[38]^[39]

At the turn of the century, researchers from the University of Oxford, the U.S. National Cancer Institute and the Hebrew University of Jerusalem collected tissue samples from 23 Caspian tiger specimens kept in museums across Eurasia. They sequenced at least one segment of five mitochondrial genes, and observed a low amount of variability of the mitochondrial DNA in P. t. virgata as compared to other tiger subspecies. They re-assessed the phylogenetic relationships of tiger subspecies and observed a remarkable similarity between Caspian and Amur tiger indicating that the Amur tiger population is the genetically closest living relative of the extinct Caspian tiger, and strongly implying a very recent common ancestry for the two groups. Phylogeographic analysis suggested that less than 10,000 years ago the ancestor of Caspian and Amur tigers colonized Central Asia via the Silk Road from eastern China, then traversed Siberia eastward to establish the Amur tiger in the Russian Far East. The actions of industrial-age humans may have been the critical factor in the reciprocal isolation of Caspian and Amur tigers from what was likely a single contiguous population.^[3]

Samples of 95 individuals were collected throughout their native range to investigate questions relative to population genetic structure and demographic history. Additionally, targeted individuals from the North American ex situ population were sampled to assess the genetic representation found in captivity. Population genetic and Bayesian structure analyses clearly identified two populations separated by a development corridor in Russia. Despite their well-documented 20th century decline, the researchers failed to find evidence of a recent population bottleneck, although genetic signatures of a historical contraction were detected. This disparity in signal may be due to several reasons, including historical paucity in population genetic variation associated with postglacial colonization and potential gene flow from a now extirpated Chinese population. The extent and distribution of genetic variation in captive and wild populations were similar, yet gene variants persisted ex situ that were lost in situ. Overall, their results indicate the need to secure ecological connectivity between the two Russian populations to minimize loss of genetic diversity and overall susceptibility to stochastic events, and support a previous study suggesting that the captive population may be a reservoir of gene variants lost in situ.^[40]

Managers will be able to selectively breed to help preserve the unique and rare gene variants. This variation may be used to re-infuse the wild population sometime in the future if reintroduction strategies are deemed warranted.^[41]

In culture

The Tungusic people considered the Siberian tiger a near-deity and often referred to it as "Grandfather" or "Old man". The Udege and Nanai called it "Amba". The Manchu considered the Siberian tiger as Hu Lin, the king.^[4] The most elite unit of the Chinese Imperial Army in Manchu Qing Dynasty is called Hu Shen Ying, literally The Tiger God Battalion.

Attacks on humans

Unlike the Bengal tiger, the Siberian tiger very rarely becomes a man-eater.^[4]^[7] Several cases of attacks on humans were recorded in the 19th century, occurring usually in central Asia (excluding Turkmenistan), Kazakhstan and the Far East. Siberian tigers were historically rarely considered dangerous unless provoked, though in the lower reaches of Syr-Darya, a tiger reportedly killed a woman collecting firewood and an unarmed military officer in the June period whilst passing through reed thickets. Attacks on shepherds were recorded in the lower reaches of Ili. In the Far East, during the middle and third quarter of the 19th century, attacks on man were recorded. In 1867 on the Tsymukha River, tigers killed 21 men and injured 6 others. In China's Jilin Province, tigers reportedly attacked woodsmen and coachmen, and occasionally entering cabins and dragging out both adults and children.^[7] According to the Japanese Police Bureau in Korea, in 1928, a tiger claimed only one human victim, unlike leopards which claimed three, wild boars four and wolves 48.^[42] Only six cases were recorded in 20th century Russia of unprovoked attacks leading to man-eating behaviour. Provoked attacks are however more common, usually the result of botched attempts at capturing them.^[4]

In December, 1997, an injured Amur tiger attacked, killed and consumed two Russians, an older trapper named Vladimir Markov and a young ex-soldier named Andrei Pochepnya. Both attacks occurred in the Bikin River valley, near the small village of Sobolonye. An anti-poaching task force known as Inspection Tiger investigated both deaths, and eventually tracked down and killed the tiger.^[43]

In January, 2002, a man named Qu Shuangxi was attacked by a Siberian tiger on a remote mountain road near Hunchun, Jilin Province, China, near the borders of Russia and North Korea.^[44] He suffered compound fractures of the elbow and was thrown into a ditch but managed to survive. When he sought medical attention that evening, his wavering story raised suspicions as it was well-known that Siberian tigers seldom attack humans without provocation. An investigation of the attack scene also revealed that a basketful of raw venison that the man was carrying was left untouched by the tiger. Since this was inconsistent with tiger food-seeking behavior, officials suspected Qu to be a poacher who somehow provoked the attack.

The following morning, tiger sightings were reported by locals along the same road and a local TV station became interested and did an on-site coverage. The 3-men TV crew and a local guide found tiger tracks and blood spoor in the snow at the attack scene and followed them for approximately 2,500 meters, hoping to catch a glimpse of the animal. Soon, the tiger was seen ambling slowly ahead of them. As the team tried to get closer for a better camera view, the tiger suddenly turned and charged, causing the four to flee in panic.^[45] Approximately one hour after that encounter, the tiger attacked and killed a 26-year-old woman who happened upon it on the same road.^[46]

The authorities were alerted after villagers tried unsuccessfully for two days to retrieve the woman's body since the tiger was always nearby. Eventually, the authorities were able to retrieve the body with the help of a bulldozer. By then, the tiger was found lying 20 meters away, weak and barely alive.^[47] It was successfully tranquilized and brought back for examination. The examination revealed the tiger to be anemic and gravely injured by a poacher’s snare around its neck, with the steel wire cutting deeply down to the vertebrae, severing both trachea and esophagus. Despite extensive surgery by a team of veterinarians,^[48] the tiger died 8 days later of wound infection.^[49]

Subsequent investigation of the first attack revealed that the first victim, Qu Shuangxi, was indeed a poacher who set multiple snares that caught both the tiger and a deer.^[50] The tiger was able to somehow break free. Although horribly injured, it stayed around and waited for Qu's return. After Qu field-dressed the deer and descended the mountain, the tiger followed him and targeted him for attack on the road. Qu, who survived the attack with only fractures and lacerations, was later charged with poaching and harming endangered species and served two years in prison.^[51] After release from prison, Qu became a tiger conservationist and worked toward clearing the forest of old snares.^[52]

In an incident at the San Francisco Zoo on 25 December 2007, a Siberian tiger named Tatiana escaped and killed one visitor, injuring two others. The animal was shot dead by the police. The zoo was widely criticized for maintaining only a 12½ ft (3.8m) fence around the tiger enclosure, while the international standard is 16 ft. (4.8m). The zoo subsequently erected a taller barrier topped by an electric fence. The police say that one of the victims admitted to taunting the animal.^[53]^[54] Zoo keeper in Anhui province; shangHai; ShenZhen, People's Republic of China were respectively attacked and killed in 2010.^[36]

On January 5, 2011 a Siberian tiger attacked and killed a tour bus driver at a breeding park in the northern province of Heilongjiang, China, while the bus was stranded in the snow with mechanical difficulties.^[55] Park officials reported that the bus driver broke safety guidelines by leaving the vehicle to check on the condition of the bus.

References

^ ^a ^b Template:IUCN
^ Mazák, V. (1981) Panthera tigris. Mammalian Species 152: 1–8.
^ ^a ^b Driscoll, C.A., Yamaguchi, N., Bar-Gal, G.K., Roca, A.L., Luo, S., Macdonald, D. W., O'Brien, S. J. 2009. Mitochondrial Phylogeography Illuminates the Origin of the Extinct Caspian Tiger and Its Relationship to the Amur Tiger. PLoS ONE 4 (1): e4125. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0004125.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ Matthiessen, Peter (2001). Tigers In The Snow. North Point Press. ISBN 0865475962. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
^ "Amur Tiger : Tigers of the World : Animal Planet". Animal.discovery.com. 2009-12-31. Retrieved 2011-08-06.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Vratislav Mazák: Der Tiger. Nachdruck der 3. Auflage von 1983. Westarp Wissenschaften Hohenwarsleben, 2004 ISBN 3894327596
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j Heptner, V. G., Sludskii, A. A. 1992. Mammals of the Soviet Union. Vol. II, part 2, Carnivores (Feloidea), p. 177. Leiden, E. J. Brill. 784 pp. ISBN 90-04-08876-8 Cite error: The named reference "USSR" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
^ Wood, The Guinness Book of Animal Facts and Feats. Sterling Pub (1983), ISBN 978-0-85112-235-9
^ Hornocker, M; Quigley, H; Ginsberg, J.; et al. 2000. The Siberian Tiger Project. Ecology and conservation of the Siberian tiger. Final report to Save the Tiger Found/National Fish and Wildlife Foundation. Grant STF-99-268-085. 1 May 1999 – 30 April 2000.NFWF.org
^ Slaght, J. C., D. G. Miquelle, I. G. Nikolaev, J. M. Goodrich, E. N. Smirnov, K. Traylor-Holzer, S. Christie, T. Arjanova, J. L. D. Smith, and K. U. Karanth. 2005. Chapter 6. Who‘s king of the beasts? Historical and recent body weights of wild and captive Amur tigers, with comparisons to other subspecies. In D.G. Miquelle, E.N. Smirnov, and J.M. Goodrich (Eds.). Tigers in Sikhote-Alin Zapovednik: Ecology and Conservation. PSP, Vladivostok, Russia Template:Ru icon, pages 25-35.
^ Thapar, Valmik (2004). Tiger: The Ultimate Guide. CDS Books. ISBN 1593150245.
^ ^a ^b Kerley, L.; Goodrich, J.; Smirnov, E.; Miquelle, D.; Nikolaev, I; Arjanova, T.; Slaght, J.; Schleyer, B.; Kuigli, H.; Hornoker, M. 2005. Chapter 7. Morphological indicators of the Amur tiger. 15 pp. In D.G. Miquelle, E.N. Smirnov, and J.M. Goodrich (Eds.). Tigers in Sikhote-Alin Zapovednik: Ecology and Conservation. PSP, Vladivostok, Russia Template:Ru icon Translate.google.com
^ ^a ^b Mazák, V. (1967) Notes on Siberian long-haired tiger, Panthera tigris altaica (Temminck, 1844), with a remark on Temminck's mammal volume of the Fauna Japonica. Mammalia 31: 537–573.
^ Loukashkin, A. S. (1938) The Manchurian Tiger. The China Journal 28 (3): 127–133
^ ^a ^b Miquelle, D. G., Smirnov, E. N., Merrill, T.. W., Myslenkov, A. E., Quigley, H., Hornocker, M. G., Schleyer, B. (1999) Hierarchical spatial analysis of Amur tiger relationships to habitat and prey. In Seidensticker, J., Christie, S. Jackson, P. (eds.) Riding the Tiger. Tiger Conservation in Human-dominated Landscapes. Cambridge University Press, UK. Pp. 71–99
^ "Siberian Tigers, Siberian Tiger Pictures, Siberian Tiger Facts - National Geographic". Retrieved 17 November 2009.
^ Toronto Zoo Animal Fact Sheet, Torontozoo.com
^ Seryodkin, Ivan (2006). "The ecology, behavior, management and conservation status of brown bears in Sikhote-Alin [[:Template:Ru icon]]". Far Eastern National University, Vladivostok, Russia. pp. 1–252. {{cite web}}: URL–wikilink conflict (help)
^ V.G. Heptner and N.P. Naumov. Mammals of the Soviet Union. Vol 2 IIa 1998. New Delhi, India: Amerind Publishing. p670-1
^ V.G. Heptner and N.P. Naumov. Mammals of the Soviet Union. Vol 2 IIa 1998. New Delhi, India: Amerind Publishing. p671
^ Brown, Gary (1996). Great Bear Almanac. p. 340. ISBN 1558214747.
^ Seryodkin, I. V., J. M. Goodrich, A. V. Kostyrya, B. O. Schleyer, E. N. Smirnov, L. L. Kerley, and D. G. Miquelle. 2005. Relationship between tigers, brown bears, and Himalayan black bears. Pages 156-163 in D. G. Miquelle, E. N. Smirnov, and J. M. Goodrich (eds.), Tigers of Sikhote-Alin Zapovednik: Ecology and Conservation. Vladivostok, Russia: PSP.
^ [Table 1. Location, physical status, size and circumstances of deaths of Amur tiger males in the Russian Far East, 1970-1994. Tigers.ru
^ Anatoliy Grigorievitch Yudakov and Igor Georgievitch Nikolaev (2004). "Hunting Behavior and Success of the Tigers' Hunts". The Ecology of the Amur Tiger based on Long-Term Winter Observations in 1970-1973 in the Western Sector of the Central Sikhote-Alin Mountains (english translation ed.). Institute of Biology and Soil Science, Far-Eastern Scientific Center, Academy of Sciences of the USSR.
^ Miquelle, D.G., Smirnov, E.N., Goodrich, J.M. (2005). Tigers of Sikhote-Alin Zapovednik: ecology and conservation. Vladivostok, Russia: PSP. {{cite book}}: Text "Chapter 1" ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
^ Kerley, Linda; Goodrich, John, and Miquelle, Dale. "Bears and tigers in the Far East" International Bear News. 5 (2): p4
^ ^a ^b "Tigers and Wolves in the Russian Far East: Competitive Exclusion, Functional Redundancy, and Conservation Implications". savethetigerfund.org. Retrieved 2008-07-09.
^ Matthiessen, Peter (2005). Large Carnivores and the Conservation of Biodiversity: Biodiversity. p. 526. ISBN 1559630809.
^ Wildlife Science: Linking Ecological Theory and Management Applications, By Timothy E. Fulbright, David G. Hewitt, Contributor Timothy E. Fulbright, David G. Hewitt, Published by CRC Press, 2007, ISBN 0-8493-7487-1
^ "Siberian Tiger Project, Wildlife Conservation Society".
^ "Russia, Iran exchange tigers for leopards but some experts express doubts". Payvand.com. Retrieved 2011-08-06.
^ "Iran, world, political, sport, economic news and headlines". MehrNews.com. Retrieved 2011-08-06.
^ Jungius, H., Chikin, Y., Tsaruk, O., Pereladova, O. (2009) Pre-Feasibility Study on the Possible Restoration of the Caspian Tiger in the Amu Darya Delta. WWF Russia
^ A Siberian tiger appears in Heilongjiang China June 22, 2010. Retrieved June 22, 2010.
^ Template:Zh icon"黑龙江东北虎林园将打造千虎园". SINA Corporation.
^ ^a ^b Siberian tiger kills zookeeper, TRHK News, 16 Aug 2010
^ Luo, S. J.; Kim, J. H.; Johnson, W. E.; Walt, J. vd.; Martenson, J.; et al. 2004. Phylogeography and Genetic Ancestry of Tigers (Panthera tigris). PLoS Biol 2 (12): e442. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.0020442
^ Russello, M. A. (2005). "Potential genetic consequences of a recent bottleneck in the Siberian tiger of the Russian Far East". Conservation Genetics. 5 (5): 707–713. doi:10.1007/s10592-004-1860-2. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |month= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
^ Platt, John (8 July 2009). "Rare Siberian tigers face potential genetic bottleneck". Scientific American. Retrieved 16 April 2011.
^ Henry, P., Miquelle, D. Sugimoto, T., McCullough, D. R., Caccone, A., Russello, M. A. "In situ population structure and ex situ representation of the endangered Amur tiger" Abstract Molecular Ecology 18 (15): 3173−3184.
^ Walker, M. (2009) Amur tigers on 'genetic brink' BBC Earth News, 2 July 2009
^ "Devils in the Darkness: The Korean Gray Wolf was a terror for miners". English.ohmynews.com. 2007-05-23. Retrieved 2011-08-06.
^ Vaillant, John. 2010. The Tiger: A True Story of Vengeance and Survival. Knopf Canada. 352 pages.
^ "‪走遍中国2009年06月19日A:寻踪东北虎系列之人虎情仇(上)‬‏". YouTube. 2009-06-18. Retrieved 2011-08-06.
^ "‪走遍中国2009年06月19日C:寻踪东北虎系列之人虎情仇(上)‬‏". YouTube. 2009-06-18. Retrieved 2011-08-06.
^ "吉林"东北虎吃人"迷雾重重：老虎胃里是空的". News.sina.com.cn. 2002-02-13. Retrieved 2011-08-06.
^ "‪走遍中国2009年06月20日A:寻踪东北虎系列之人虎情仇(下)‬‏". YouTube. 2009-06-20. Retrieved 2011-08-06.
^ "先后动了两次手术我国首次抢救重伤野生东北虎纪实". News.sina.com.cn. Retrieved 2011-08-06.
^ "‪走遍中国2009年06月20日B:寻踪东北虎系列之人虎情仇(下)‬‏". YouTube. 2009-06-20. Retrieved 2011-08-06.
^ "吉林两男子欲捕东北虎其中一人反被虎咬伤". News.sina.com.cn. Retrieved 2011-08-06.
^ "‪走遍中国2009年06月20日C:寻踪东北虎系列之人虎情仇(下)‬‏". YouTube. 2009-06-20. Retrieved 2011-08-06.
^ "From hunter to protector". Chinadaily.com.cn. Retrieved 2011-08-06.
^ "AP, "Tiger attack victim admits taunting, police say; Teen attacked by Tatiana reportedly says young men yelled, waved at cat", MSNBC.com (January 17, 2008)".
^ "Jaxon Van Derbeken, "S.F. Zoo mauling investigation winding down" San Francisco Chronicle (January 19, 2008)".
^ “Siberian tiger attacks, kills bus driver in China.” AP News, Jan 5, 2011.

External links

21st Century Tiger - Fundraising for wild tiger conservation, 21stcenturytiger.org
Amur (Siberian) tiger at World Wide Fund for Nature, panda.org
Siberian Tiger Profile at animals.nationalgeographic.com
Wildlife Conservation Society's Siberian Tiger Project, wcs.org
Amur.org.uk, Preserving leopards and tigers in the wild
Captive Amur Tiger images at Highland Wildlife Park, Scotland, flickr.com
USDA Information Resources on Tigers, Panthera tigris, nal.usda.gov
Amur Leopard and Tiger Alliance (ALTA) - Conservation of Amur tigers and leopards in the wild, amur-leopard.org

[iucn-1] Template:IUCN

[Mazak1981"-2] Mazák, V. (1981) Panthera tigris. Mammalian Species 152: 1–8.

[driscoll-3] Driscoll, C.A., Yamaguchi, N., Bar-Gal, G.K., Roca, A.L., Luo, S., Macdonald, D. W., O'Brien, S. J. 2009. Mitochondrial Phylogeography Illuminates the Origin of the Extinct Caspian Tiger and Its Relationship to the Amur Tiger. PLoS ONE 4 (1): e4125. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0004125.

[SAM-4] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ Matthiessen, Peter (2001). Tigers In The Snow. North Point Press. ISBN 0865475962. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)

[5] "Amur Tiger : Tigers of the World : Animal Planet". Animal.discovery.com. 2009-12-31. Retrieved 2011-08-06.

[der-tiger-6] Vratislav Mazák: Der Tiger. Nachdruck der 3. Auflage von 1983. Westarp Wissenschaften Hohenwarsleben, 2004 ISBN 3894327596

[USSR-7] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j Heptner, V. G., Sludskii, A. A. 1992. Mammals of the Soviet Union. Vol. II, part 2, Carnivores (Feloidea), p. 177. Leiden, E. J. Brill. 784 pp. ISBN 90-04-08876-8 Cite error: The named reference "USSR" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).

[8] Wood, The Guinness Book of Animal Facts and Feats. Sterling Pub (1983), ISBN 978-0-85112-235-9

[9] Hornocker, M; Quigley, H; Ginsberg, J.; et al. 2000. The Siberian Tiger Project. Ecology and conservation of the Siberian tiger. Final report to Save the Tiger Found/National Fish and Wildlife Foundation. Grant STF-99-268-085. 1 May 1999 – 30 April 2000.NFWF.org

[10] Slaght, J. C., D. G. Miquelle, I. G. Nikolaev, J. M. Goodrich, E. N. Smirnov, K. Traylor-Holzer, S. Christie, T. Arjanova, J. L. D. Smith, and K. U. Karanth. 2005. Chapter 6. Who‘s king of the beasts? Historical and recent body weights of wild and captive Amur tigers, with comparisons to other subspecies. In D.G. Miquelle, E.N. Smirnov, and J.M. Goodrich (Eds.). Tigers in Sikhote-Alin Zapovednik: Ecology and Conservation. PSP, Vladivostok, Russia Template:Ru icon, pages 25-35.

[11] Thapar, Valmik (2004). Tiger: The Ultimate Guide. CDS Books. ISBN 1593150245.

[Kerley+al2005-12] Kerley, L.; Goodrich, J.; Smirnov, E.; Miquelle, D.; Nikolaev, I; Arjanova, T.; Slaght, J.; Schleyer, B.; Kuigli, H.; Hornoker, M. 2005. Chapter 7. Morphological indicators of the Amur tiger. 15 pp. In D.G. Miquelle, E.N. Smirnov, and J.M. Goodrich (Eds.). Tigers in Sikhote-Alin Zapovednik: Ecology and Conservation. PSP, Vladivostok, Russia Template:Ru icon Translate.google.com

[Mazak1967-13] Mazák, V. (1967) Notes on Siberian long-haired tiger, Panthera tigris altaica (Temminck, 1844), with a remark on Temminck's mammal volume of the Fauna Japonica. Mammalia 31: 537–573.

[14] Loukashkin, A. S. (1938) The Manchurian Tiger. The China Journal 28 (3): 127–133

[Miquelle+al1999-15] Miquelle, D. G., Smirnov, E. N., Merrill, T.. W., Myslenkov, A. E., Quigley, H., Hornocker, M. G., Schleyer, B. (1999) Hierarchical spatial analysis of Amur tiger relationships to habitat and prey. In Seidensticker, J., Christie, S. Jackson, P. (eds.) Riding the Tiger. Tiger Conservation in Human-dominated Landscapes. Cambridge University Press, UK. Pp. 71–99

[16] "Siberian Tigers, Siberian Tiger Pictures, Siberian Tiger Facts - National Geographic". Retrieved 17 November 2009.

[torontozoo-17] Toronto Zoo Animal Fact Sheet, Torontozoo.com

[Seryodkin_PhD-18] Seryodkin, Ivan (2006). "The ecology, behavior, management and conservation status of brown bears in Sikhote-Alin [[:Template:Ru icon]]". Far Eastern National University, Vladivostok, Russia. pp. 1–252. {{cite web}}: URL–wikilink conflict (help)

[19] V.G. Heptner and N.P. Naumov. Mammals of the Soviet Union. Vol 2 IIa 1998. New Delhi, India: Amerind Publishing. p670-1

[20] V.G. Heptner and N.P. Naumov. Mammals of the Soviet Union. Vol 2 IIa 1998. New Delhi, India: Amerind Publishing. p671

[Bearalmanac-21] Brown, Gary (1996). Great Bear Almanac. p. 340. ISBN 1558214747.

[22] Seryodkin, I. V., J. M. Goodrich, A. V. Kostyrya, B. O. Schleyer, E. N. Smirnov, L. L. Kerley, and D. G. Miquelle. 2005. Relationship between tigers, brown bears, and Himalayan black bears. Pages 156-163 in D. G. Miquelle, E. N. Smirnov, and J. M. Goodrich (eds.), Tigers of Sikhote-Alin Zapovednik: Ecology and Conservation. Vladivostok, Russia: PSP.

[23] [Table 1. Location, physical status, size and circumstances of deaths of Amur tiger males in the Russian Far East, 1970-1994. Tigers.ru

[24] Anatoliy Grigorievitch Yudakov and Igor Georgievitch Nikolaev (2004). "Hunting Behavior and Success of the Tigers' Hunts". The Ecology of the Amur Tiger based on Long-Term Winter Observations in 1970-1973 in the Western Sector of the Central Sikhote-Alin Mountains (english translation ed.). Institute of Biology and Soil Science, Far-Eastern Scientific Center, Academy of Sciences of the USSR.

[25] Miquelle, D.G., Smirnov, E.N., Goodrich, J.M. (2005). Tigers of Sikhote-Alin Zapovednik: ecology and conservation. Vladivostok, Russia: PSP. {{cite book}}: Text "Chapter 1" ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[26] Kerley, Linda; Goodrich, John, and Miquelle, Dale. "Bears and tigers in the Far East" International Bear News. 5 (2): p4

[Alin-27] "Tigers and Wolves in the Russian Far East: Competitive Exclusion, Functional Redundancy, and Conservation Implications". savethetigerfund.org. Retrieved 2008-07-09.

[Tigers&wolves-28] Matthiessen, Peter (2005). Large Carnivores and the Conservation of Biodiversity: Biodiversity. p. 526. ISBN 1559630809.

[29] Wildlife Science: Linking Ecological Theory and Management Applications, By Timothy E. Fulbright, David G. Hewitt, Contributor Timothy E. Fulbright, David G. Hewitt, Published by CRC Press, 2007, ISBN 0-8493-7487-1

[30] "Siberian Tiger Project, Wildlife Conservation Society".

[31] "Russia, Iran exchange tigers for leopards but some experts express doubts". Payvand.com. Retrieved 2011-08-06.

[32] "Iran, world, political, sport, economic news and headlines". MehrNews.com. Retrieved 2011-08-06.

[Jungius09-33] Jungius, H., Chikin, Y., Tsaruk, O., Pereladova, O. (2009) Pre-Feasibility Study on the Possible Restoration of the Caspian Tiger in the Amu Darya Delta. WWF Russia

[34] A Siberian tiger appears in Heilongjiang China June 22, 2010. Retrieved June 22, 2010.

[35] Template:Zh icon"黑龙江东北虎林园将打造千虎园". SINA Corporation.

[RTHKanhui-36] Siberian tiger kills zookeeper, TRHK News, 16 Aug 2010

[37] Luo, S. J.; Kim, J. H.; Johnson, W. E.; Walt, J. vd.; Martenson, J.; et al. 2004. Phylogeography and Genetic Ancestry of Tigers (Panthera tigris). PLoS Biol 2 (12): e442. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.0020442

[38] Russello, M. A. (2005). "Potential genetic consequences of a recent bottleneck in the Siberian tiger of the Russian Far East". Conservation Genetics. 5 (5): 707–713. doi:10.1007/s10592-004-1860-2. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |month= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)

[39] Platt, John (8 July 2009). "Rare Siberian tigers face potential genetic bottleneck". Scientific American. Retrieved 16 April 2011.

[40] Henry, P., Miquelle, D. Sugimoto, T., McCullough, D. R., Caccone, A., Russello, M. A. "In situ population structure and ex situ representation of the endangered Amur tiger" Abstract Molecular Ecology 18 (15): 3173−3184.

[41] Walker, M. (2009) Amur tigers on 'genetic brink' BBC Earth News, 2 July 2009

[42] "Devils in the Darkness: The Korean Gray Wolf was a terror for miners". English.ohmynews.com. 2007-05-23. Retrieved 2011-08-06.

[43] Vaillant, John. 2010. The Tiger: A True Story of Vengeance and Survival. Knopf Canada. 352 pages.

[44] "‪走遍中国2009年06月19日A:寻踪东北虎系列之人虎情仇(上)‬‏". YouTube. 2009-06-18. Retrieved 2011-08-06.

[45] "‪走遍中国2009年06月19日C:寻踪东北虎系列之人虎情仇(上)‬‏". YouTube. 2009-06-18. Retrieved 2011-08-06.

[46] "吉林"东北虎吃人"迷雾重重：老虎胃里是空的". News.sina.com.cn. 2002-02-13. Retrieved 2011-08-06.

[47] "‪走遍中国2009年06月20日A:寻踪东北虎系列之人虎情仇(下)‬‏". YouTube. 2009-06-20. Retrieved 2011-08-06.

[48] "先后动了两次手术我国首次抢救重伤野生东北虎纪实". News.sina.com.cn. Retrieved 2011-08-06.

[49] "‪走遍中国2009年06月20日B:寻踪东北虎系列之人虎情仇(下)‬‏". YouTube. 2009-06-20. Retrieved 2011-08-06.

[50] "吉林两男子欲捕东北虎其中一人反被虎咬伤". News.sina.com.cn. Retrieved 2011-08-06.

[51] "‪走遍中国2009年06月20日C:寻踪东北虎系列之人虎情仇(下)‬‏". YouTube. 2009-06-20. Retrieved 2011-08-06.

[52] "From hunter to protector". Chinadaily.com.cn. Retrieved 2011-08-06.

[53] "AP, "Tiger attack victim admits taunting, police say; Teen attacked by Tatiana reportedly says young men yelled, waved at cat", MSNBC.com (January 17, 2008)".

[S.F._Zoo_mauling_investigation_winding_down-54] "Jaxon Van Derbeken, "S.F. Zoo mauling investigation winding down" San Francisco Chronicle (January 19, 2008)".

[55] “Siberian tiger attacks, kills bus driver in China.” AP News, Jan 5, 2011.

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@@ Line 83: / Line 83: @@
 In 1992, the Siberian Tiger Project was founded, Since then, the Siberian tiger population has seen a steady recovery and stabilization. The basis of the success has largely been on the meticulous research carried out on these tigers which led to the longest ongoing study of a single tiger, Olga Project Tiger #1. Through this the project was able to focus their conservation efforts to decrease tiger mortality and to improve the quality of their habitat as well. The project included anti-poaching patrols, consultation with local governments regarding human-tiger conflicts, reducing the occurrences of clearcut logging, and other habitat depletion activities.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wcs.org/international/Asia/russia/siberiantigerproject|title=Siberian Tiger Project, Wildlife Conservation Society}}</ref>
+===Re-population ideas===
 In 2010, Russia exchanged 2 captive Amur tigers for [[Persian Leopards]] with the Iran Government, as conservation groups of both countries have agreed on restocking these animals back into the wild within the next 5 years. Some experts, however, doubt the plan as they feel that this is a political publicity exercise.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.payvand.com/news/10/may/1232.html |title=Russia, Iran exchange tigers for leopards but some experts express doubts |publisher=Payvand.com |date= |accessdate=2011-08-06}}</ref> On December 30, 2010, one of the tigers exchanged died in Eram Zoo in Tehran.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mehrnews.com/fa/newsdetail.aspx?NewsID=1221297 |title=Iran, world, political, sport, economic news and headlines |publisher=MehrNews.com |date= |accessdate=2011-08-06}}</ref>
+Stimulated by recent findings that the Amur tiger is the closest relative of the Caspian tiger, discussions started if the Amur tiger could be an appropriate subspecies for reintroduction into a save place in Central Asia. The [[Amu-Darya]] Delta was suggested as a potential site for such a project. A feasibility study was initiated to investigate if the area is suitable and if such an initiative would receive support from relevant decision makers. A viable tiger population of about 100 animals would require at least 5,000 ha (19 sq mi) of large tracts of contiguous habitat with rich prey populations. Such habitat is not available at this stage and can not be provided in the short term. The proposed region is therefore unsuitable for the reintroduction, at least at this stage of developments.<ref name=Jungius09>Jungius, H., Chikin, Y., Tsaruk, O., Pereladova, O. (2009) [http://www.wwf.ru/data/asia/tiger/tiger_pre-feasibility_study.pdf ''Pre-Feasibility Study on the Possible Restoration of the Caspian Tiger in the Amu Darya Delta'']. WWF Russia</ref>
 === In captivity===
@@ Line 101: / Line 104: @@
 At the turn of the century, researchers from the [[University of Oxford]], the [[U.S. National Cancer Institute]] and the [[Hebrew University of Jerusalem]] collected tissue samples from 23 Caspian tiger specimens kept in museums across [[Eurasia]]. They sequenced at least one segment of five [[Mitochondrial DNA|mitochondrial]] genes, and observed a low amount of variability of the mitochondrial DNA in ''P. t. virgata'' as compared to other tiger subspecies. They re-assessed the [[phylogenetic]] relationships of tiger subspecies and observed a remarkable similarity between Caspian and Amur tiger indicating that the Amur tiger population is the genetically closest living relative of the extinct Caspian tiger, and strongly implying a very recent common ancestry for the two groups. [[Phylogeographic]] analysis suggested that less than 10,000 years ago the ancestor of Caspian and Amur tigers colonized [[Central Asia]] via the [[Silk Road]] from eastern [[China]], then traversed [[Siberia]] eastward to establish the Amur tiger in the [[Russian Far East]]. The actions of [[Industrial Age|industrial-age]] humans may have been the critical factor in the reciprocal isolation of Caspian and Amur tigers from what was likely a single contiguous population.<ref name="driscoll" />
+Samples of 95 individuals were collected throughout their native range to investigate questions relative to population genetic structure and demographic history. Additionally, targeted individuals from the North American ''ex situ'' population were sampled to assess the genetic representation found in captivity. Population genetic and [[Bayesian |Bayesian]] structure analyses clearly identified two populations separated by a development corridor in Russia. Despite their well-documented 20th century decline, the researchers failed to find evidence of a recent [[population bottleneck]], although genetic signatures of a historical contraction were detected. This disparity in signal may be due to several reasons, including historical paucity in population genetic variation associated with [[postglacial]] colonization and potential [[gene flow]] from a now extirpated Chinese population. The extent and distribution of genetic variation in captive and wild populations were similar, yet gene variants persisted ''ex situ'' that were lost ''in situ''. Overall, their results indicate the need to secure ecological connectivity between the two Russian populations to minimize loss of genetic diversity and overall susceptibility to [[stochastic]] events, and support a previous study suggesting that the captive population may be a reservoir of gene variants lost ''in situ''.<ref>Henry, P., Miquelle, D. Sugimoto, T., McCullough, D. R., Caccone, A., Russello, M. A. "In situ population structure and ex situ representation of the endangered Amur tiger" [http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/122465135/abstract?CRETRY=1&SRETRY=0 Abstract] Molecular Ecology 18 (15): 3173−3184.</ref>
+Managers will be able to selectively breed to help preserve the unique and rare gene variants. This variation may be used to re-infuse the wild population sometime in the future if reintroduction strategies are deemed warranted.<ref>Walker, M. (2009) [http://news.bbc.co.uk/earth/hi/earth_news/newsid_8128000/8128738.stm Amur tigers on 'genetic brink'] BBC Earth News, 2 July 2009</ref>
 ==In culture==
@@ Line 121: / Line 128: @@
 On January 5, 2011 a Siberian tiger attacked and killed a tour bus driver at a breeding park in the northern province of Heilongjiang, China, while the bus was stranded in the snow with mechanical difficulties.<ref>“Siberian tiger attacks, kills bus driver in China.” AP News, Jan 5, 2011.</ref> Park officials reported that the bus driver broke safety guidelines by leaving the vehicle to check on the condition of the bus.
-==Russia-Iran Re-population project==
-[[Iran]]ian and [[Russia]]n [[ecologists]] are planning a joint project to return tigers and [[Persian leopard]]s to the wild in [[Central Asia]]. These big cats became [[extirpated]] some half a century ago - the Asiatic Cheetah from Russia and Caspian Tiger from Iran. Recent genetic studies have shown that the Amur (or Russian) Tiger is related and virtually identical to the extinct Caspian Tigers; thus, the Russians want to offer the Amur Tiger to Iran to repopulate the Caspian Tiger range in northern Iran. In exchange, Russia wants to acquire from Iran some critically endangered Asiatic Cheetahs to repopulate [[northern Caucasus]] region of central Asia, their last abode. There are many more Amur Tigers in the wild than the tiny numbers of surviving Asiatic Cheetah, and while there is a healthy population of Russian Tiger in the captive breeding program in zoos,<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/earth/hi/earth_news/newsid_8128000/8128738.stm Amur tigers on 'genetic brink']; Matt Walker; 2 July 2009; Editor, Earth News, BBC</ref><ref>[http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/122465135/abstract?CRETRY=1&SRETRY=0 Interscience.wiley.com], "In situ population structure and ex situ representation of the endangered Amur tiger", Authors: P. Henry, D. Miquelle, T. Sugimoto, D. R. McCullough, A. Caccone and M. A. Russello, Department of Biology and Centre for Species at Risk and Habitat Studies, [[University of British Columbia]] Okanagan, 3333 University Way, Kelowna, BC, Canada V1V 1V7, Russian Far East Program, Wildlife Conservation Society, 2300 Southern Boulevard, New York, NY 10460, USA, Graduate School of Environmental Earth Science, [[Hokkaido University]], N10W5 Sapporo, Hokkaido 060-0810, Japan, Department of Environmental Science, Policy, and Management and Museum of Vertebrate Zoology, [[University of California]], Berkeley, CA 94720, USA, Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, [[Yale University]], 21 Sachem Street, New Haven, CT 06520, USA. Published Online: 23 June 2009; Molecular Ecology, Volume 18 Issue 15, Pages 3173 - 3184</ref> there is no captive breeding population of the Asiatic Cheetah in any zoo.<ref>[http://www.payvand.com/news/10/jan/1082.html Iran, Russia Hope to Revive Extinct Big Cats Persian leopard and Caspian Tiger]; Source: Press TV; 09 january 2010; Payvand Iran News, payvand.com</ref><ref name="driscoll">[http://www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0004125 Mitochondrial Phylogeography Illuminates the Origin of the Extinct Caspian Tiger and Its Relationship to the Amur Tiger], plosone.org</ref>
 ==References==