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The [[Tōkai Nuclear Power Plant|first nuclear reactor in Japan]] was built by the [[United Kingdom|UK]]'s [[General Electric Company plc|GEC]]. In the 1970s the first [[Light Water Reactor]]s were built in cooperation with American companies. These plants were bought from U.S. vendors such as [[General Electric]] or [[Westinghouse Electric Company|Westinghouse]] with contractual work done by Japanese companies, who would later get a license themselves to build similar plant designs. Developments in nuclear power since that time has seen contributions from Japanese companies and research institutes on the same level as the other big users of nuclear power.
The [[Tōkai Nuclear Power Plant|first nuclear reactor in Japan]] was built by the [[United Kingdom|UK]]'s [[General Electric Company plc|GEC]]. In the 1970s the first [[Light Water Reactor]]s were built in cooperation with American companies. These plants were bought from U.S. vendors such as [[General Electric]] or [[Westinghouse Electric Company|Westinghouse]] with contractual work done by Japanese companies, who would later get a license themselves to build similar plant designs. Developments in nuclear power since that time has seen contributions from Japanese companies and research institutes on the same level as the other big users of nuclear power.

[[Robert Jay Lifton]] has asked "how it is possible that Japan, after its experience with the atomic bombings, could allow itself to draw so heavily on the same nuclear technology for the manufacture of about a third of its energy".<ref name=lifton/> He says:
<blockquote>
There ''was'' resistance, much of it from Hiroshima and Nagasaki survivors. But there was also a pattern of denial, cover-up and cozy bureaucratic collusion between industry and government, the last especially notorious in Japan but by no means limited to that country. Even then, pro-nuclear power forces could prevail only by managing to instill in the minds of Japanese people a dichotomy between the physics of nuclear power and that of nuclear weapons, an illusory distinction made not only in Japan but throughout the world.<ref name=lifton>{{cite web |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2011/04/16/opinion/16iht-edlifton16.html?_r=1 |title=Fukushima and Hiroshima |author=Robert Jay Lifton |date=April 15, 2011 |work=New York Times }}</ref>
</blockquote>


Japan's nuclear industry was not hit as hard by the effects of the [[Three Mile Island accident]] (TMI) or the [[Chernobyl disaster]] as some other countries. Construction of new plants continued to be strong through the 1980s, 1990s, and up to the present day. However, starting in the mid-1990s there were several nuclear related accidents and cover-ups in Japan that eroded public perception of the industry, resulting in protests and resistance to new plants. These accidents included the [[Tokaimura nuclear accident]], the [[Mihama Nuclear Power Plant|Mihama steam explosion]], cover-ups after an accidents at the [[Monju Nuclear Power Plant|Monju reactor]], among others, more recently the [[2007 Chūetsu offshore earthquake|Chūetsu offshore earthquake]] aftermath. While exact details may be in dispute, it is clear that the safety culture in Japan's nuclear industry has come under greater scrutiny.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/652169.stm | work=BBC News | title=Japan cancels nuclear plant | date=February 22, 2000}}</ref> Canceled plant orders include:
Japan's nuclear industry was not hit as hard by the effects of the [[Three Mile Island accident]] (TMI) or the [[Chernobyl disaster]] as some other countries. Construction of new plants continued to be strong through the 1980s, 1990s, and up to the present day. However, starting in the mid-1990s there were several nuclear related accidents and cover-ups in Japan that eroded public perception of the industry, resulting in protests and resistance to new plants. These accidents included the [[Tokaimura nuclear accident]], the [[Mihama Nuclear Power Plant|Mihama steam explosion]], cover-ups after an accidents at the [[Monju Nuclear Power Plant|Monju reactor]], among others, more recently the [[2007 Chūetsu offshore earthquake|Chūetsu offshore earthquake]] aftermath. While exact details may be in dispute, it is clear that the safety culture in Japan's nuclear industry has come under greater scrutiny.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/652169.stm | work=BBC News | title=Japan cancels nuclear plant | date=February 22, 2000}}</ref> Canceled plant orders include:

Revision as of 07:37, 16 April 2011

The Onagawa Nuclear Power Plant, a 3-unit BWR site typical of Japan's nuclear plants.

Since 1973, nuclear energy has been a national strategic priority in Japan, as the nation is heavily dependent on imported fuel, with fuel imports accounting for 61% of energy production. There has been concern about the ability of Japan's nuclear plants to withstand seismic activity. The Kashiwazaki-Kariwa Nuclear Power Plant was completely shut down for 21 months following an earthquake in 2007.

Following an earthquake, tsunami, and the failure of cooling systems at the Fukushima I Nuclear Power Plant on March 11, 2011, a nuclear emergency was declared. This was the first time a nuclear emergency had been declared in Japan, and 140,000 residents within 20 km of the plant were evacuated. The amount of radiation released is unclear, as the crisis is ongoing.[1]

History

In 1954, Japan budgeted 230 million yen for nuclear energy, marking the beginning of the program. The Atomic Energy Basic Law limited activities to only peaceful purposes.

The first nuclear reactor in Japan was built by the UK's GEC. In the 1970s the first Light Water Reactors were built in cooperation with American companies. These plants were bought from U.S. vendors such as General Electric or Westinghouse with contractual work done by Japanese companies, who would later get a license themselves to build similar plant designs. Developments in nuclear power since that time has seen contributions from Japanese companies and research institutes on the same level as the other big users of nuclear power.

Robert Jay Lifton has asked "how it is possible that Japan, after its experience with the atomic bombings, could allow itself to draw so heavily on the same nuclear technology for the manufacture of about a third of its energy".[2] He says:

There was resistance, much of it from Hiroshima and Nagasaki survivors. But there was also a pattern of denial, cover-up and cozy bureaucratic collusion between industry and government, the last especially notorious in Japan but by no means limited to that country. Even then, pro-nuclear power forces could prevail only by managing to instill in the minds of Japanese people a dichotomy between the physics of nuclear power and that of nuclear weapons, an illusory distinction made not only in Japan but throughout the world.[2]

Japan's nuclear industry was not hit as hard by the effects of the Three Mile Island accident (TMI) or the Chernobyl disaster as some other countries. Construction of new plants continued to be strong through the 1980s, 1990s, and up to the present day. However, starting in the mid-1990s there were several nuclear related accidents and cover-ups in Japan that eroded public perception of the industry, resulting in protests and resistance to new plants. These accidents included the Tokaimura nuclear accident, the Mihama steam explosion, cover-ups after an accidents at the Monju reactor, among others, more recently the Chūetsu offshore earthquake aftermath. While exact details may be in dispute, it is clear that the safety culture in Japan's nuclear industry has come under greater scrutiny.[3] Canceled plant orders include:

Note that the Suzu NPP plant proposal is said to be "frozen", meaning that it may continue sometime in the future if economic factors turn more in its favor, though there has been no sign of this happening.

These cancellations reflect to some degree the safety concerns that surfaced after the Monju cover-up (1995) and the Tokaimura accident (1999) and could be compared to the situation in the United States where there was a large number of plant order cancellations after TMI and the Chernobyl disaster. However, it is important to note that most cancellations in Japan are a result of 10, 15, or more years of postponed work and poor support. Through the same time period there were also some new plants connected to the grid, and as of 2007, construction is in progress on several other plants. Japan has thus yet to see a complete break in the construction of new nuclear plants, which has happened in the United States and France.

The Japanese government has maintained strong support for nuclear power. After the Tokaimura accident, many reorganizations of the government funded research organizations occurred and stricter controls were enforced, but the size and scope of research in nuclear power topics has continued to expand. While the number of reactors is expected to increase, the focus of new developments will shift to the advanced fuel cycle and next generation plants. Japan plans to be a major player in the Global Nuclear Energy Partnership and has joined the ITER project. Furthermore, a United States-Japan Joint Nuclear Energy Action Plan has also been created, which is indicative of the commitment the Japanese government has to new nuclear technologies.

In March 2008, Tokyo Electric Power Company announced that the start of operation of four new nuclear power reactors would be postponed by one year due to the incorporation of new earthquake resistance assessments. Units 7 and 8 of the Fukushima Daiichi plant would now enter commercial operation on October 2014 and October 2015, respectively. Unit 1 of the Higashidori plant is now scheduled to begin operating in December 2015, while unit 2 will start up in 2018 at the earliest.[4]

As of September 2008, Japanese ministries and agencies were seeking an increase in the 2009 budget by 6%. The total requested comes to 491.4 billion Japanese yen (4.6 billion USD), and the focuses of research are development of the fast breeder reactor cycle, next-generation light water reactors, the Iter project, and seismic safety.[5]

International cooperation

The nuclear industry in Japan has been highly affected by its U.S. counterpart. Through the late 1990s to present day, the industry has become confident that the United States would see construction of new nuclear plants. Hoping to take advantage of that, along with other opening markets, joint venture agreements between the major nuclear fuel vendors occurred in 1999, 2006, and 2007, following from the legacy of co-operation that began when Japan imported Western technology to jump start its nuclear fleet.[citation needed]

On April 18, 2007, Japan and the United States signed the United States-Japan Joint Nuclear Energy Action Plan, aimed at putting in place a framework for the joint research and development of nuclear energy technology. [6] Each country will conduct research into fast reactor technology, fuel cycle technology, advanced computer simulation and modeling, small and medium reactors, safeguards and physical protection; and nuclear waste management.[7]

Seismicity

File:Fukushima I by Digital Globe 2 cropped.jpg
During the 2011 Fukushima nuclear emergency, three nuclear reactors were damaged by explosions.

Japan has had a long history of earthquakes and seismic activity, and destructive earthquakes, often resulting in tsunamis, occur several times a century. Due to this, concern has been expressed about the particular risks of constructing and operating nuclear power plants in Japan. Amory Lovins has said: "An earthquake-and-tsunami zone crowded with 127 million people is an un-wise place for 54 reactors".[8] To date, the most serious seismic-related incident has been the Fukushima I nuclear accidents, following the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami.

Professor Katsuhiko Ishibashi, one of the seismologists who have taken an active interest in the topic, coined the term genpatsu-shinsai (原発震災), from the Japanese words for "nuclear power" and "quake disaster" to express the potential worst-case catastrophe that could ensue.[9][10] Dr Kiyoo Mogi, former chair of the Japanese Coordinating Committee for Earthquake Prediction,[11] has expressed similar concerns, stating in 2004 that the issue 'is a critical problem which can bring a catastrophe to Japan through a man-made disaster'.[12][13]

Hidekatsu Yoshii, a member of the House of Representatives for Japanese Communist Party and a anti-nuclear campaigner, warned in March and October 2006 about the possibility of the severe damage that might be caused by a tsunami or earthquake.[14] During a parliamentary committee in May 2010 he made similar claims, warning that the cooling systems of a Japanese nuclear plant could be destroyed by a landslide or earthquake.[14] In response Yoshinobu Terasaka, head of the Nuclear and Industrial Safety Agency, replied that the plants were so well designed that 'such a situation is practically impossible'.[14]

Following damage at the Kashiwazaki-Kariwa Nuclear Power Plant due to the 2007 Chūetsu offshore earthquake, Kiyoo Mogi called for the immediate closure of the Hamaoka Nuclear Power Plant,[11][15] which was knowingly built close to the centre of the expected Tōkai earthquake.[12] Katsuhiko Ishibashi previously claimed, in 2004, that Hamaoka was 'considered to be the most dangerous nuclear power plant in Japan'.[16]

The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) has also expressed concern. At a meeting of the G8's Nuclear Safety and Security Group, held in Tokyo in 2008, an IAEA expert warned that a strong earthquake with a magnitude above 7.0 could pose a 'serious problem' for Japan's nuclear power stations.[17]

Design standards

Horizontal acceleration experienced and design values during the 2007 and 2011 major earthquake and earthquake-tsunami events.

Between 2005 and 2007, three Japanese nuclear power plants were shaken by earthquakes that far exceeded the maximum peak ground acceleration used in their design.[18] The tsunami that followed the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake, inundating the Fukushima I Nuclear Power Plant, was more than twice the design height,[19] while the ground acceleration also slightly exceeded the design parameters.[20]

In 2006 a Japanese government subcommittee was charged with revising the national guidelines on the earthquake-resistance of nuclear power plants, which had last been partially revised in 2001,[21] resulting in the publication of a new seismic guide — the 2006 Regulatory Guide for Reviewing Seismic Design of Nuclear Power Reactor Facilities.[21] The subcommittee membership included Professor Ishibashi, however his proposal that the standards for surveying active faults should be reviewed was rejected and he resigned at the final meeting, claiming that the review process was 'unscientific'[11][22] and the outcome rigged[22][23] to suit the interests of the Japan Electric Association, which had 11 of its committee members on the 19-member government subcommittee.[23] Ishibashi has subsequently claimed that, although the new guide brought in the most far-reaching changes since 1978, it was 'seriously flawed' because it underestimated the design basis earthquake ground motion.[9] He has also claimed that the enforcement system is 'a shambles'[18][9] and questioned the independence of the Nuclear Safety Commission after a senior Nuclear and Industrial Safety Agency official appeared to rule out a new review of the NSC's seismic design guide in 2007.[9]

Following publication of the new 2006 Seismic Guide, the Nuclear and Industrial Safety Agency, at the request of the Nuclear Safety Commission, required the design of all existing nuclear power plants to be re-evaluated.[24]

Geological surveys

The standard of geological survey work in Japan is another area causing concern. In 2008 Taku Komatsubara, a geologist at the National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology alleged that that the presence of active faults was deliberately ignored when surveys of potential new power plant sites were undertaken, a view supported by a former topographer.[25] Takashi Nakata, a seismologist from the Hiroshima Institute of Technology has made similar allegations, and suggest that conflicts of interest between the Japanese nuclear industry and the regulators contribute to the problem.[23]

Nuclear power plants

There are 55 operating nuclear reactors in Japan with a number of others in construction or being planned. For a list, see List of nuclear reactors or List of power stations in Japan. Following the Fukushima I nuclear accidents Prime Minister Naoto Kan has announced that all 6 of the reactors at the Fukushima I Nuclear Power Plant will be decommissioned.[26] The plant operators had previously stated that reactors 1 to 4 would never operate again.[27]

class=notpageimage|
Nuclear power plants in Japan (view)
 Active plants
 Inactive plants
 Cancelled plants
 Decommissioned plants
 Planned plants

Nuclear organizations in Japan

  • Nuclear Safety Commission 原子力安全委員会 - The Japanese regulatory body for the nuclear industry.
  • Japanese Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) 原子力委員会 - Now operating as a commission of inquiry to the Japanese cabinet, this organization coordinates the entire nation's plans in the area of nuclear energy.
  • Nuclear and Industrial Safety Agency (NISA) 原子力安全・保安院 - The NISA performs regulatory activities and was formed January 6, 2001, after a reorganization of governmental agencies.

Research organizations

These organizations are government funded research organizations, though many of them have special status to give them power of administration separate from the Japanese government. Their origins date back to the Atomic Energy Basic Law, but they have been reorganized several times since their inception.

The original nuclear energy research organization established by the Japanese government under cooperation with US partners.
This organization was formed along with JAERI under the Atomic Energy Basic Law and was later reorganized to be PNC.
This organization succeeded the AFC in 1967 in order to perform more direct construction of experimental nuclear plants.
Was formed in 1998 as the direct successor to the PNC. This organization operated Lojo and Monju experimental and demonstration reactors.
This is the modern, currently operating primary nuclear research organization in Japan. It was formed by a merger of JAERI and JNC in 2005.

Electric utilities running nuclear plants

Japan is divided into a number of regions that each get electric service from their respective regional provider, all utilities hold a monopoly and are strictly regulated by the Japanese government. For more background information see Energy in Japan. All regional utilities in Japan currently operate nuclear plants with the exception of the Okinawa Electric Power Company. They are also all members of the Federation of Electric Power Companies (FEPCO) industry organization. The companies are listed below.

  • Regional electric providers
  • Other companies with a stake in nuclear power
The headquarters of Electric Power Development, or J-Power, whose activities are specially directed towards R&D on new power sources.
JAPC was created by special provisions from the Japanese government to be the first company in Japan to run a nuclear plant. Today it still operates two separate sites.
This company was created by a special law after the end of World War 2, it operates a number of coal fired, hydroelectric, and wind power plants, the Ohma nuclear plant that is under construction will mark its entrance to the industry upon completion.

Nuclear vendors and fuel cycle companies

Nuclear vendors provide fuel in its fabricated form, ready to be loaded in the reactor, nuclear services, and/or manage construction of new nuclear plants. The following is an incomplete list of companies based in Japan that provide such services. The companies listed here provide fuel or services for commercial light water plants, and in addition to this, JAEA has a small MOX fuel fabrication plant.

NFI operates nuclear fuel fabrication plants in both Kumatori, Osaka and in Tōkai, Ibaraki, fabricating 284 and 200 (respectively) metric tons Uranium per year. The Tōkai site produces BWR, HTR, and ATR fuel while the Kumatori site produces only PWR fuel.
The shareholders of JNFL are the Japanese utilities. JNFL plans to open a full scale enrichment facility in Rokkasho, Aomori with a capacity of 1.5 million SWU/yr along with a MOX fuel fabrication facility. JNFL has also operated a nuclear fuel fabrication facility called Kurihama Nuclear Fuel Plant in Yokosuka, Kanagawa as GNF, producing BWR fuel.
MHI operates a fuel manufacturing plant in Tōkai, Ibaraki, and contributes many heavy industry components to construction of new nuclear plants, and has recently designed its own APWR plant type, fuel fabrication has been completely PWR fuel, though MHI sells components to BWRs as well. It was selected by the Japanese government to develop fast breeder reactor technology and formed Mitsubishi FBR Systems. MHI has also announced an alliance with Areva to form a new company called Atmea.
GNF was formed as a joint venture with General Electric Nuclear Energy (GENE), Hitachi, and Toshiba on January 1, 2000. GENE has since strengthened its relationship with Hitachi, forming a global nuclear alliance:
This company was formed July 1, 2007. Its next generation reactor, the ESBWR has made significant progress with US regulators, and as of July 2007, has been submitted to English regulators as well for the generic design assessment (GDA) process.
  • Toshiba - 東芝 電力システム社 原子力事業部
Toshiba has maintained a large nuclear business focused mostly on Boiling Water Reactors. With the purchase of the American Westinghouse by 5.4 Billion USD in 2006, which is focused mainly on Pressurized Water Reactor technology, it increased the size of its nuclear business about two fold. Toshiba has plans to continue significant expansion in the next decade.

Academic/Professional Organizations

  • The Atomic Energy Society of Japan (AESJ) 日本原子力学会 is a major academic organization in Japan focusing on all forms of nuclear power. The Journal of Nuclear Science and Technology is the academic journal run by the AESJ. It publishes English and Japanese articles, though most submissions are from Japanese research institutes, universities, and companies.[29][citation needed]
  • Japan Electric Association (JEA) 日本電気協会 develops and publishes codes and guides for the Japanese nuclear power industry[31] and is active in promoting nuclear power.[32]

Other proprietary organizations

Established in 1978 as by Sumimoto Metal Mining Co. this company did work with Uranium conversion and set up factories at the Tokai-mura site. Later, it was held solely responsible for the Tokaimura nuclear accident

Anti-nuclear activities

Opposition to nuclear power has long existed in Japan and a 2005 International Atomic Energy Agency survey showed that "only one in five people in Japan considered nuclear power safe enough to justify new plant construction".[33] However, in the same survey, 61 percent support the current nuclear program while only 15 percent feel nuclear power is too dangerous and that all the plants in Japan should be shut down. This oppostion to the current nuclear program was the lowest of all the countries surveyed second to South korea. [1]

Citizens' Nuclear Information Center

The Citizens' Nuclear Information Center is an anti-nuclear public interest organization dedicated to securing a nuclear-free world. It was established in Tokyo in 1975 to collect and analyze information related to nuclear power, including safety, economic, and proliferation issues. Data compiled by the CNIC is presented to the media, citizens' groups and policy makers. The CNIC is supported by membership fees, donations, and sales of publications, and is independent from government and industry.[34][35]

Stop Rokkasho

Stop Rokkasho is a group that campaigns against the Rokkasho Reprocessing Plant. In 2008, members of hundreds of opposition groups demonstrated in central Tokyo to protest the building of the Rokkasho Plant, designed to allow commercial reprocessing of reactor waste to produce plutonium.[33]

Hunger strike

Five Japanese young people held a hunger strike for more than a week, outside the Prefectural Government offices in Yamaguchi City, to protest site preparation for the planned Kaminoseki Nuclear Power Plant near the environmentally sensitive Seto Inland Sea.[36]

Kaminoseki

The intended site for the Kaminoseki NPP in Kaminoseki, Yamaguchi.

The proposed Kaminoseki Nuclear Power Plant is to be built on landfill in a national park in Japan's well-known and picturesque Seto Inland Sea. For three decades, local residents, fishermen, and environmental activists have opposed the plant. The Inland Sea has been the site of intense seismic activity, yet the utility involved continues with its plans.[33] In January 2011, five Japanese young people held a hunger strike for more than a week, outside the Prefectural Government offices in Yamaguchi City, to protest site preparation for the planned Kaminoseki plant.[36]

Hamaoka

On 10 April 2011 protesters called for the Hamaoka nuclear-power plant to be shut down, but offered no alternatives to meet Japan's energy needs.[37]

Nuclear accidents

In terms of consequences of radiation release, worker exposure, and core damage the Fukushima I nuclear accidents in 2011 were the worst experienced by the industry in addition to ranking among the worst civilian nuclear accidents. The Tokaimura reprocessing plant fire in 1999 has 2 worker deaths, one more exposed to radiation levels above legal limits and over 660 others received detectable radiation doses but below permissible levels. The Mihama Nuclear Power Plant experienced a steam explosion in one of the turbine buildings in 2004 where 4 workers were killed and seven others injured.

2011 accidents

A map showing epicenter of earthquake and position of nuclear power plants
Main article: 2011 Japanese nuclear accidents

There have been many nuclear shutdowns, failures, and partial meltdowns which were triggered by the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami.

Plant description Accident descriptions
Fukushima I Nuclear Power Plant
Fukushima II Nuclear Power Plant Fukushima II nuclear accidents
Onagawa Nuclear Power Plant Onagawa Nuclear Power Plant incidents
Tōkai Nuclear Power Plant Tōkai Nuclear Power Plant incidents
Rokkasho Reprocessing Plant Rokkasho Reprocessing Plant incidents

Other accidents

Main article: Nuclear accidents by country
See also: Lists of nuclear disasters and radioactive incidents

Other accidents of note include:[38]

  • 1981: almost 300 workers were exposed to excessive levels of radiation after a fuel rod ruptured during repairs at the Tsuruga Nuclear Power Plant.[38]
  • December 1995: the fast breeder Monju Nuclear Power Plant sodium leak.[38] State-run operator Donen was found to have concealed videotape footage that showed extensive damage to the reactor.[39]
  • March 1997: the Tokaimura nuclear reprocessing plant fire and explosion, northeast of Tokyo. 37 workers were exposed to low doses of radiation. Donen later acknowledged it had initially suppressed information about the fire.[38][39]
  • 1999: a fuel loading system malfunctioned at a nuclear plant in the Fukui Prefecture and set off an uncontrolled nuclear reaction and explosion.[38]
  • September 1999: the criticality accident at the Tokai fuel fabrication facility.[38] Hundreds of people were exposed to radiation, three workers received doses above legal limits of whom two later died.[39]
  • 2000: Three Tokyo Electric Power Co. executives were forced to quit after the company in 1989 ordered an employee to edit out footage showing cracks in nuclear plant steam pipes in video being submitted to regulators.[39]
  • August 2002: a widespread falsification scandal starting in that led to the shut down of all Tokyo Electric Power Company’s 17 nuclear reactors; Tokyo Electric's officials had falsified inspection records and attempted to hide cracks in reactor vessel shrouds in 13 of its 17 units.[40]
  • 2002: Two workers were exposed to a small amount of radiation and suffered minor burns during a fire at Onagawa Nuclear Power Station in northern Japan.[39]
  • 9 August 2004: four workers were killed after a steam explosion at the Mihama-3 station; the subsequent investigation revealed a serious lack in systematic inspection in Japanese nuclear plants, which led to a massive inspection program.[41]
  • 2006: A small amount of radioactive steam was released at the Fukushima Dai-ichi plant and it escaped the compound.[39]
  • 16 July 2007: a severe earthquake (measuring 6.8 on the Richter scale) hit the region where Tokyo Electric's Kashiwazaki-Kariwa Nuclear Power Plant is located and radioactive water spilled into the Sea of Japan; as of March 2009, all of the reactors remain shut down for damage verification and repairs; the plant with seven units was the largest single nuclear power station in the world.[40]

See also

References

  1. ^ Weisenthal, Joe (11 March 2011). "Japan Declares Nuclear Emergency, As Cooling System Fails At Power Plant". Business Insider. Retrieved 11 March 2011.
  2. ^ a b Robert Jay Lifton (April 15, 2011). "Fukushima and Hiroshima". New York Times.
  3. ^ "Japan cancels nuclear plant". BBC News. February 22, 2000.
  4. ^ New Japanese nuclear power reactors delayed
  5. ^ NucNet. Japan Budget Proposals Seek Increase In Nuclear Spending. September 11, 2008.
  6. ^ United States and Japan Sign Joint Nuclear Energy Action Plan, United States Department of Energy, published 2007-04-25, accessed 2007-05-02
  7. ^ Fact Sheet: United States-Japan Joint Nuclear Energy Action Plan, United States Department of Energy, published 2007-04-25, accessed 2007-05-02
  8. ^ Amory Lovins (March 18, 2011). "With Nuclear Power, "No Acts of God Can Be Permitted"". Huffington Post.
  9. ^ a b c d Katsuhiko Ishibashi, "Why worry? Japan's nuclear plants at grave risk from quake damage" The Asia-Pacific Journal: Japan Focus (August 11, 2007) Also published by the International Herald Tribune (August 11, 2007). Retrieved March 24, 2011
  10. ^ Michael Reilly, "Insight: Where not to build nuclear power stations" (preview only) New Scientist (July 28, 2007). Retrieved March 24, 2011 (subscription required)
  11. ^ a b c Quake shuts world's largest nuclear plant Nature, vol 448, 392-393, doi:10.1038/448392a, published 2007-07-25, accessed 2011-03-18 Cite error: The named reference "nature-07-07-25" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  12. ^ a b Two grave issues concerning the expected Tokai Earthquake Kiyoo Mogi, Earth Planets Space, Vol. 56 (No. 8), pp. li-lxvi, published 2004, accessed 2011-03-11
  13. ^ Japan Holds Firm to Shaky Science Science, Vol. 264 no. 5166 pp. 1656-1658, doi: 10.1126/science.264.5166.1656, published 1994-06-17, accessed 2011-03-18
  14. ^ a b c Dvorak, Phred; Hayashi, Yuka (March 28, 2011). "Lawmaker Broached Plant Risk". The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved March 28, 2011.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  15. ^ Nuclear crisis in Japan as scientists reveal quake threat to power plants The Times, published 2007-07-19, accessed 2011-03-18
  16. ^ Japan's deadly game of nuclear roulette The Japan Times, published 2004-05-23, accessed 2011-03-18
  17. ^ physorg.com - IAEA warned Japan over nuclear quake risk: WikiLeaks
  18. ^ a b Japan's nuclear plant quake protection too lax, said expert The Australian published 2011-03-13, accessed 2011-04-06
  19. ^ "Fukushima faced 14-metre tsunami". World Nuclear News. 23 March 2011. Retrieved march 24, 2011. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)
  20. ^ Japan's Earthquake Regulations for Nuclear Power The Neutron Economy published 2011-04-04, accessed 2011-04-06
  21. ^ a b Regulatory Guide for Reviewing Seismic Design of Nuclear Power Reactor Facilities Nuclear Safety Commission, published 2006-09-19, accessed 2011-04-06
  22. ^ a b Jason Clenfield (March 17, 2011). "Japan Nuclear Disaster Caps Decades of Faked Reports, Accidents". Bloomberg Businessweek.
  23. ^ a b c Japan Nuclear Energy Drive Compromised by Conflicts of Interest Bloomberg, published 2007-12-12, accessed 2011-04-11
  24. ^ The NSC views on, and future actions to take for, the impacts due to the Niigata-ken Chuetsu-oki Earthquake in 2007 - NSC Decision No. 17, 2007 Nuclear Safety Commission, published 2007-07-30, accessed 2011-04-06
  25. ^ Japan's nuclear facilities face quake risk UPI Asia, published 2008-06-12, accessed 2011-04-11
  26. ^ Fukushima plant to be decommissioned BreakingNews, published 2011-03-31, accessed 2011-04-08
  27. ^ Fukushima Daiichi Reactors to Be Decommissioned NowPublic, published 2011-03-30, accessed 2011-04-08
  28. ^ Japan Atomic Industrial Forum.
  29. ^ Atomic Energy Society of Japan.
  30. ^ Japan Nuclear Technology Institute.
  31. ^ Convention on Nuclear Safety; National Report of Japan for Fourth Review Meeting Government of Japan, published September 2007, accessed 2011-04-07
  32. ^ Template:Ja Work Japan Electric Association, accessed 2011-04-07
  33. ^ a b c Yale Environment 360 (March 18, 2011). "Japan's Once-Powerful Nuclear Industry Is Under Siege". Reuters.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  34. ^ Introducing CNIC
  35. ^ Arita, Eriko, "Disaster analysis you may not hear elsewhere", Japan Times, 20 March 2011, p. 12.
  36. ^ a b "Five Japanese in Hunger Strike Against Kaminoseki Nuclear Power Plant". January 29, 2011.
  37. ^ "Thousands Protest Nuclear Power in Japan"
  38. ^ a b c d e f Benjamin K. Sovacool. A Critical Evaluation of Nuclear Power and Renewable Electricity in Asia, Journal of Contemporary Asia, Vol. 40, No. 3, August 2010, pp. 380.
  39. ^ a b c d e f Associated Press (March 17, 2011). "A look at Japan's history of nuclear power trouble". Bloomberg Businessweek.
  40. ^ a b The European Parliament's Greens-EFA Group - The World Nuclear Industry Status Report 2007 p. 23.
  41. ^ The Mihama Nuclear Power Plant Accident

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Nuclear power plants in Japan.


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