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==Institutionalized racism in the U.S.==
==Institutionalized racism in the U.S.==
{{offtopic|date=April 2011}}
[[File:ColoredDrinking.jpg|thumb|400px|An African-American drinking at the "Colored" water cooler in an [[Oklahoma City, Oklahoma]] streetcar terminal in 1939. Institutionalized racism led to treatment and accommodations that were usually inferior to those provided for [[white American]]s, systematizing a number of economic, educational and social disadvantages.<ref>{{Cite web| last = Lee | first = Russell | title = Negro drinking at "Colored" water cooler in streetcar terminal, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma | work = Prints & Photographs Online Catalog| publisher = [[Library of Congress]] Home | year = 1939 | month = July | url = http://www.loc.gov/pictures/item/fsa1997026728/PP/ |accessdate = March 23, 2005}}</ref>]]
[[File:ColoredDrinking.jpg|thumb|400px|An African-American drinking at the "Colored" water cooler in an [[Oklahoma City, Oklahoma]] streetcar terminal in 1939. Institutionalized racism led to treatment and accommodations that were usually inferior to those provided for [[white American]]s, systematizing a number of economic, educational and social disadvantages.<ref>{{Cite web| last = Lee | first = Russell | title = Negro drinking at "Colored" water cooler in streetcar terminal, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma | work = Prints & Photographs Online Catalog| publisher = [[Library of Congress]] Home | year = 1939 | month = July | url = http://www.loc.gov/pictures/item/fsa1997026728/PP/ |accessdate = March 23, 2005}}</ref>]]
The [[American Civil War]] (1861–1865) was a [[civil war]] in the U.S. between the 'North' and '[[Southern United States|South]]' over eliminating all forms of slavery with most slaves being blacks held by whites.<ref>The [[Origins of the American Civil War|causes of the war]], the reasons for its outcome, and even [[Naming the American Civil War|the name of the war itself]] are subjects of lingering contention today.</ref> Eleven Southern [[slave state]]s declared their [[secession]] from the U.S. and formed "[[Confederate Army|the Confederacy]]". The U.S. federal government was supported by twenty mostly-Northern [[Free state (United States)|free states]] in which slavery already had been abolished, and by five slave states that became known as the [[border states (American Civil War)|border states]]. These twenty-five states, referred to as the [[Union (American Civil War)|Union]], had a much larger base of population and industry than the South. After four years of devastating warfare (mostly within the Southern states), the Confederacy surrendered and slavery for the South's 3.5 million blacks effectively ended and was later outlawed everywhere in the nation.<ref> Slavery for the Southern slaves ended when Union armies arrived; they were nearly all freed by the [[Emancipation Proclamation]]. Slaves in the border states and those located in some former Confederate territory occupied prior to the Emancipation Proclamation were freed by state action or (on December 18, 1865) by the [[Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Thirteenth Amendment]]. </ref> The [[Reconstruction era of the United States|Reconstruction Era]] began during the war (and continued to 1877) in an effort to solve the issues caused by reunion including the degree of federal control that should be imposed on the South, and the process by which Southern states should be reintegrated into the Union. These disputes became central to the political debates and underlying racism remained unresolved for generations.
The [[American Civil War]] (1861–1865) was a [[civil war]] in the U.S. between the 'North' and '[[Southern United States|South]]' over eliminating all forms of slavery with most slaves being blacks held by whites.<ref>The [[Origins of the American Civil War|causes of the war]], the reasons for its outcome, and even [[Naming the American Civil War|the name of the war itself]] are subjects of lingering contention today.</ref> Eleven Southern [[slave state]]s declared their [[secession]] from the U.S. and formed "[[Confederate Army|the Confederacy]]". The U.S. federal government was supported by twenty mostly-Northern [[Free state (United States)|free states]] in which slavery already had been abolished, and by five slave states that became known as the [[border states (American Civil War)|border states]]. These twenty-five states, referred to as the [[Union (American Civil War)|Union]], had a much larger base of population and industry than the South. After four years of devastating warfare (mostly within the Southern states), the Confederacy surrendered and slavery for the South's 3.5 million blacks effectively ended and was later outlawed everywhere in the nation.<ref> Slavery for the Southern slaves ended when Union armies arrived; they were nearly all freed by the [[Emancipation Proclamation]]. Slaves in the border states and those located in some former Confederate territory occupied prior to the Emancipation Proclamation were freed by state action or (on December 18, 1865) by the [[Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Thirteenth Amendment]]. </ref> The [[Reconstruction era of the United States|Reconstruction Era]] began during the war (and continued to 1877) in an effort to solve the issues caused by reunion including the degree of federal control that should be imposed on the South, and the process by which Southern states should be reintegrated into the Union. These disputes became central to the political debates and underlying racism remained unresolved for generations.
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The [[African-American Civil Rights Movement (1955–1968)]] aimed at outlawing [[racism|racial discrimination]] against [[African American]]s and restoring [[Suffrage|voting rights]] in Southern states. By 1966, the emergence of the [[Black Power|Black Power Movement]], which lasted roughly from 1966 to 1975, enlarged the aims of the Civil Rights Movement to include racial dignity, economic and political [[self-sufficiency]], and freedom from oppression by [[white American]]s. The movement was characterized by major campaigns of [[civil resistance]], [[Nonviolence|nonviolent]] protest and civil disobedience which produced crisis situations between activists and government authorities that highlighted the inequities faced by African Americans in the South.<ref> Forms of protest and/or civil disobedience included [[boycott]]s, such as the successful [[Montgomery Bus Boycott]] (1955–1956) in Alabama; "[[sit-in]]s", such as the influential [[Greensboro sit-ins]] (1960) in North Carolina; and a wide range of other nonviolent activities such as the [[Selma to Montgomery marches]] (1965) in Alabama.</ref> Noted legislative achievements during this phase of the Civil Rights Movement were passage of [[Civil Rights Act of 1964]],<ref name="cra64"> [http://finduslaw.com/civil_rights_act_of_1964_cra_title_vii_equal_employment_opportunities_42_us_code_chapter_21 Civil Rights Act of 1964]</ref> that banned discrimination based on "race, color, religion, or national origin" in employment practices and public accommodations; the [[Voting Rights Act of 1965]], that restored and protected voting rights; the [[Immigration and Nationality Services Act of 1965]], that dramatically opened entry to the U.S. to immigrants other than traditional European groups; and the [[Fair Housing Act of 1968]], that banned discrimination in the sale or rental of housing. African Americans re-entered politics in the South, and across the country young people were inspired to action. Some researchers trace white people's fear and anger at non-whites to the [[Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965]] which abolished racial immigration quotas in the U.S.<ref name=eatwell/> Although the U.S. has always been multi-cultural, large numbers of immigrants entered the country at the same time birth rates for whites were falling.<ref name=eatwell/> These same fears were stoked in the mid-1990s by the [[U.S. Census Bureau]]'s report that whites will lose their majority in the country by 2050.<ref name=eatwell/><ref>William Booth, "America's Racial and Ethnic Divides: One Nation, Indivisible: Is It History?", ''Washington Post'', February 22, 1998. </ref> The fears were further fueled in 2000 when California, the [[List of U.S. states by population|most populous]] and third-largest state by land area (after Alaska and Texas)<ref name="popEst">{{cite web| url= http://www.census.gov/popest/states/tables/NST-EST2009-01.csv| format=CSV| title=Table 1. Annual Estimates of the Population for the United States, Regions, States, and Puerto Rico: April 1, 2000 to July 1, 2009|date=December 22, 2009| publisher= [[U.S. Census Bureau]]|accessdate=December 24, 2009}}</ref> and home to the eight of the nation's [[List of United States cities by population|most populous cities]], had lost its white majority.<ref name=eatwell/>
The [[African-American Civil Rights Movement (1955–1968)]] aimed at outlawing [[racism|racial discrimination]] against [[African American]]s and restoring [[Suffrage|voting rights]] in Southern states. By 1966, the emergence of the [[Black Power|Black Power Movement]], which lasted roughly from 1966 to 1975, enlarged the aims of the Civil Rights Movement to include racial dignity, economic and political [[self-sufficiency]], and freedom from oppression by [[white American]]s. The movement was characterized by major campaigns of [[civil resistance]], [[Nonviolence|nonviolent]] protest and civil disobedience which produced crisis situations between activists and government authorities that highlighted the inequities faced by African Americans in the South.<ref> Forms of protest and/or civil disobedience included [[boycott]]s, such as the successful [[Montgomery Bus Boycott]] (1955–1956) in Alabama; "[[sit-in]]s", such as the influential [[Greensboro sit-ins]] (1960) in North Carolina; and a wide range of other nonviolent activities such as the [[Selma to Montgomery marches]] (1965) in Alabama.</ref> Noted legislative achievements during this phase of the Civil Rights Movement were passage of [[Civil Rights Act of 1964]],<ref name="cra64"> [http://finduslaw.com/civil_rights_act_of_1964_cra_title_vii_equal_employment_opportunities_42_us_code_chapter_21 Civil Rights Act of 1964]</ref> that banned discrimination based on "race, color, religion, or national origin" in employment practices and public accommodations; the [[Voting Rights Act of 1965]], that restored and protected voting rights; the [[Immigration and Nationality Services Act of 1965]], that dramatically opened entry to the U.S. to immigrants other than traditional European groups; and the [[Fair Housing Act of 1968]], that banned discrimination in the sale or rental of housing. African Americans re-entered politics in the South, and across the country young people were inspired to action. Some researchers trace white people's fear and anger at non-whites to the [[Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965]] which abolished racial immigration quotas in the U.S.<ref name=eatwell/> Although the U.S. has always been multi-cultural, large numbers of immigrants entered the country at the same time birth rates for whites were falling.<ref name=eatwell/> These same fears were stoked in the mid-1990s by the [[U.S. Census Bureau]]'s report that whites will lose their majority in the country by 2050.<ref name=eatwell/><ref>William Booth, "America's Racial and Ethnic Divides: One Nation, Indivisible: Is It History?", ''Washington Post'', February 22, 1998. </ref> The fears were further fueled in 2000 when California, the [[List of U.S. states by population|most populous]] and third-largest state by land area (after Alaska and Texas)<ref name="popEst">{{cite web| url= http://www.census.gov/popest/states/tables/NST-EST2009-01.csv| format=CSV| title=Table 1. Annual Estimates of the Population for the United States, Regions, States, and Puerto Rico: April 1, 2000 to July 1, 2009|date=December 22, 2009| publisher= [[U.S. Census Bureau]]|accessdate=December 24, 2009}}</ref> and home to the eight of the nation's [[List of United States cities by population|most populous cities]], had lost its white majority.<ref name=eatwell/>



==Johnny Rebel==
==Johnny Rebel==

Revision as of 22:15, 13 April 2011

This article is about neo-Nazism and white supremacy music. For the early 1900s term for African American music, see Race music.
Raised arms Nazi salute for the heavy metal band Batallón de Castigo during a 2003 concert in Alcalá de Henares, Spain.

Racist music is music associated with and promoting neo-Nazism and white supremacy ideologies.[1] Although musicologists point out that many, if not most early cultures had songs to promote themselves and denigrate any perceived enemies, the origins of Racist music is tied to the 1950s.[2] Racist music adopts the musical conventions and trappings, rhythms and forms of non-racist music to advance extreme white racism in various music genres, including pop, and teen pop, over the past five decades.[2] By 2001 there were many music genres with white power rock the most commonly represented band type, followed by National Socialist black metal.[3] Racist country music is mainly an American phenomena while Germany, Great Britain, and Sweden have higher concentration of white power bands.[3] Other music genres include fascist experimental music and racist folk music.[3] Contemporary white-supremisist groups include "subcultural factions that are largely organized around the promotion and distribution of racist music."[4] According to the Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission "racist music is principally derived from the far-right skinhead movement and, through the Internet, this music has become perhaps the most important tool of the international neo-Nazi movement to gain revenue and new recruits."[5][6] The news documentary VH1 News Special: Inside Hate Rock (2002) noted that Racist music (also called 'Hate music' and 'Skinhead rock') is "a breeding ground for home-grown terrorists."[7] In 2004 a neo-Nazi record company launched "Project Schoolyard" to distribute free CDs of the music into the hands of up to 100,000 teenagers throughout the U.S., their website stated, "We just don't entertain racist kids … We create them."[8] Brian Houghton, of the National Memorial Institute for the Prevention of Terrorism, said that Racist music was a great recruiting tool, "Through music ... to grab these kids, teach them to be racists and hook them for life."[9]

Role in hate movement

"It is not a simplistic cause-effect relationship, but there is no escaping the fact that the media, as pervasive as they are, have significant sway with the young. Teens and others may purchase white power rock music with racist and violent lyrics that encourage the purported struggle for white rights."[10] Kevin Saunders in Degradation: What the History of Obscenity Tells Us about Hate Speech states that of the groups that want to "pass on racial hatred and the doctrine of white supremacy" to teach children to hate, the ones who do so through music are perhaps the most successful.[11] In the 1993 book Hate Crimes: The Rising Tide of Bigotry and Bloodshed the authors note that in its newsletter WAR advises: "Music is one of the greatest propaganda tools around. You can influence more people with a song than you can with a speech."[12] In Inside Organized Racism: Women in the Hate Movement Kathleen M. Blee talks about how integral Racist music is to the hate movement, "To be a racist skinhead means to be a part of a musical subculture of loud, hard-core music with viciously racist lyrics. [They] see such music as a key to reviving a movement they regard as floundering under the lifeless leadership of older Klan and Nazi leaders."[13] The racist culture includes "violent dancing, all-night parties featuring drugs and alcohol ... [building] a sense of individual and collective power no matter how illusory."[13] The white power movement has bundled racist music along with stickers, clothing, sunglasses, pet wear, and contemporarily styled Nazi apparel and other, usually online, enticements to recruit young, white social outcasts.[14]

Another newer trend is for all-female race music bands to form and be marketed, as all-male race bands are limited in venues they can play, additionally the female-fronted bands are much less likely to encounter violent anti-racism protests.[15] Another aspect of female bands is their general disdain of performing heavy metal and more hard rock music than the variety of styles and prefer a variety post-feminism sensibilities in lyrics, style of music and performance.[15]

It is a multi-millon dollar industry which helps finance and recruit for "hate groups in the Western world", the internet and low air fares have helped internationalize the efforts.[3] The music is more pervasive in Europe than the U.S. despite many countries banning or curtailing distribution.[3] European governments regularly deport "extremist aliens", ban racist music groups and raid racist organizations that produce and distribute the music.[3] As of 2001, there were albums from 123 US-based bands and 229 from other countries, mostly Europe.[3] Racist music is protected freedom of speech in the United States by the First Amendment to the U.S. Constitution.[16] As such the concerts serve as effective recruiting tools to bring in youth who are attracted to the music, concerts, and culture of skinheads.[16] The multimillion dollar industry is arguably most active in the U.S. bringing in funds for right-wing politics groups in the U.S. and producing music and propaganda for the rest of the world.[16] Racist music is also becoming less taboo as the Internet allows users to purchase quickly and anonymously as compared to having to go into a physical store.[17] Mainstream music retailers cite the first amendment and "slippery-slope" logic to defend racist music the right to be sold online.[17]

Institutionalized racism in the U.S.

An African-American drinking at the "Colored" water cooler in an Oklahoma City, Oklahoma streetcar terminal in 1939. Institutionalized racism led to treatment and accommodations that were usually inferior to those provided for white Americans, systematizing a number of economic, educational and social disadvantages.[18]

The American Civil War (1861–1865) was a civil war in the U.S. between the 'North' and 'South' over eliminating all forms of slavery with most slaves being blacks held by whites.[19] Eleven Southern slave states declared their secession from the U.S. and formed "the Confederacy". The U.S. federal government was supported by twenty mostly-Northern free states in which slavery already had been abolished, and by five slave states that became known as the border states. These twenty-five states, referred to as the Union, had a much larger base of population and industry than the South. After four years of devastating warfare (mostly within the Southern states), the Confederacy surrendered and slavery for the South's 3.5 million blacks effectively ended and was later outlawed everywhere in the nation.[20] The Reconstruction Era began during the war (and continued to 1877) in an effort to solve the issues caused by reunion including the degree of federal control that should be imposed on the South, and the process by which Southern states should be reintegrated into the Union. These disputes became central to the political debates and underlying racism remained unresolved for generations.

With the Compromise of 1877, Army intervention in the South ceased followed by a period that white Southerners labeled Redemption, in which white-dominated state legislatures enacted Jim Crow laws and (after 1890) disfranchised most blacks and many poor whites through a combination of constitutional amendments and electoral laws.[21][22] The laws mandated de jure racial segregation in all public facilities, with a supposedly "separate but equal" status for black Americans. The white Southerners' memory of Reconstruction played a major role in imposing the system of white supremacy and second-class citizenship for blacks, known as the age of Jim Crow. Jim Crow laws were in many ways a model for the Nuremberg Laws, German legislation against Jews, which the Congress of the Nazi Party met to pass in 1935.[23] The laws monopolized the "New South" into the 1960s, when the civil rights and voting rights of African Americans were finally protected and enforced.[24] The Ku Klux Klan name was used by many independent local groups opposing the Civil Rights Movement and desegregation, especially in the 1950s and 1960s.[25] During this period, they often forged alliances with Southern police departments,[26] or with governor's offices.[27][28][29] They make frequent reference to America's "Anglo-Saxon" and "Celtic" blood, harking back to 19th century nativism and racialism priding themselves on being descended from the original 18th century British colonial revolutionaries.[30] Today, a large majority of sources consider the Klan to be far-right,[31][32][33][34] and a "subversive or terrorist organization"[35][36][37][38][39] that advocate extremist reactionary currents such as white supremacy, white nationalism, and anti-immigration, historically expressed through terrorism.[40][41] Since the mid-20th century, the KKK has also been anti-communist.[40] The current manifestation is splintered into several chapters and is classified as a hate group.[42] Today, researchers estimate that there may be approximately 150 Klan chapters with upwards of 5,000 members nationwide.[35]

The African-American Civil Rights Movement (1955–1968) aimed at outlawing racial discrimination against African Americans and restoring voting rights in Southern states. By 1966, the emergence of the Black Power Movement, which lasted roughly from 1966 to 1975, enlarged the aims of the Civil Rights Movement to include racial dignity, economic and political self-sufficiency, and freedom from oppression by white Americans. The movement was characterized by major campaigns of civil resistance, nonviolent protest and civil disobedience which produced crisis situations between activists and government authorities that highlighted the inequities faced by African Americans in the South.[43] Noted legislative achievements during this phase of the Civil Rights Movement were passage of Civil Rights Act of 1964,[44] that banned discrimination based on "race, color, religion, or national origin" in employment practices and public accommodations; the Voting Rights Act of 1965, that restored and protected voting rights; the Immigration and Nationality Services Act of 1965, that dramatically opened entry to the U.S. to immigrants other than traditional European groups; and the Fair Housing Act of 1968, that banned discrimination in the sale or rental of housing. African Americans re-entered politics in the South, and across the country young people were inspired to action. Some researchers trace white people's fear and anger at non-whites to the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965 which abolished racial immigration quotas in the U.S.[16] Although the U.S. has always been multi-cultural, large numbers of immigrants entered the country at the same time birth rates for whites were falling.[16] These same fears were stoked in the mid-1990s by the U.S. Census Bureau's report that whites will lose their majority in the country by 2050.[16][45] The fears were further fueled in 2000 when California, the most populous and third-largest state by land area (after Alaska and Texas)[46] and home to the eight of the nation's most populous cities, had lost its white majority.[16]

Johnny Rebel

Johnny Rebel, the pseudonym that Cajun country musician Clifford Joseph Trahane used notably on racist[47] recordings issued in the 1960s, became the "forefather of white power music."[47][48][49] Jay "J.D." Miller's Reb Rebel label was started in 1966 in Crowley, Louisiana when Miller began experimenting with 'segregationist music'.[49][2] The studios first single, "Dear Mr. President" (referring to then-president Lyndon B. Johnson (LBJ)), by Happy Fats (Leroy Leblanc), sold more than 200,000 copies.[49][50] Fats' song parodied LBJ's Great Society programs which aimed to eliminate poverty and racial injustice.[49] Other songs were primarily about civil rights, the Great Society and the Vietnam War, "but never really attacked black people."[49] The studio's second release, "Flight NAACP 105" by 'the Son of Mississippi' (Joe Norris), was the label's bestseller; the track was a "spontaneous skit in the vein of Amos 'n' Andy."[49] Johnny Rebel's releases, six 45 rpm's each with a B-side (twelve songs altogether), frequently use the racial epithet nigger and often voiced sympathy for Jim Crow laws-era racial segregation and the Ku Klux Klan (KKK) like his first B-side "Kajun Klu (sic) Klux Klan", a "cautionary tale centered on the story of 'Levi Coon' who dared to demand that he be served in a café."[49][51][2] The songs were "vehemently anti-black, its pro-segregationist lyrics set to the twangs of the era's swampbilly craze."[49] Rebel, a Catholic, ironically did object to the KKK's masking themselves and said the Klan should stop attacking the Catholic religion and focus solely on race issues.[49] Rebel Records ultimately released 21 of the 45 rpms and For Segregationists Only, an album of its ten bestselling songs, four of which were Johnny Rebel's.[49][48] Thanks to bootleged copies and the Internet his career had never died, in the late 1990s he was re-discovered and re-rleased the music on CD and promoted it with his own webpage.[49] The site did not spark new interest outside his fanbase until the terrorist attacks of Sept. 11, 2001.[49] Rebel recorded and released "Infidel Anthem", about "the whipping America should lay on Osama bin Laden," that led to his appearance on The Howard Stern Show, where the new compilation CD and the new song were promoted and a few of the old tracks were played.[49] At the time Stern's show had a peak audience of around 20 million.[52][53][54]

Music and youth cultures

In the 1960s, music became heavily involved in the burgeoning youth counter culture, as well as various social and political causes.

Psychedelic and progressive rock arose during this period, along with the roots of what would later become funk, hip hop, salsa, electronic music, punk rock and heavy metal. An American roots revival occurred simultaneously as a period of sexual liberation and racial conflict, leading to growth in the lyrical maturity and complexity of popular music as songwriters wrote about the changes the country was going through. The skinhead subculture was originally associated with black popular music genres such as soul, ska, rocksteady and early reggae.[55][56][57] Psychedelic rock became the genre most closely intertwined with the youth culture. It arose from the British Invasion of blues in the middle of the decade when few American bands could compete. It became associated with hippies and the anti-war movement, civil rights, feminism and environmentalism, paralleling the similar rise of Afrocentric Black Power in soul and funk. In the late-1960s, psychedelic rock and the youth culture splintered. Punk rock, heavy metal, singer-songwriter and progressive rock appeared, and the connection between music and social activism largely disappeared from popular music.

In the early 1970s, some reggae songs began to feature themes of black nationalism, which many white skinheads could not relate to.[58] This shift in reggae's lyrical themes created some tension between black and white skinheads, who otherwise got along fairly well.[59] At the same time popular music was dominated by folk-based singer-songwriters, followed by the rise of heavy metal subgenres, glam, and country rock. Hip hop arose in New York City, drawing on diverse influences from both white and black folk music, as well as Jamaican toasting. Heavy metal's early pioneers were hard-edged and bluesy, with an often menacing tone that became more pronounced in later subgenres. Punk rock arose as a reaction against what had come before. It arose in London and New York, with numerous regional centers by the end of the decade.[60][61][62][63][64] American skinheads created a link between their subculture and hardcore punk music. Although many white power skinheads listened to Oi! music, they also developed a separate genre that was more in line with their politics: Rock Against Communism (RAC).[65] The most notable RAC band was Skrewdriver, which started out as a non-political punk band but evolved into a Neo-Nazism after the original lineup broke up and a new lineup was formed.[66][67][68] White power music that sounds like hardcore is sometimes called hatecore. Tied to the racist skinheadism in Germany, racist music "saturated with racial mysticism and pan-European white rhetoric of survival, separatism, and rebellion ... without the cumbersome apparatus and regalia of political parties," was exported throughout Europe, Russia, Brazil and the United States in the 1980s and 1990s.[15]

National Socialist black metal

National Socialist black metal (also known as NSBM) is black metal that promotes National Socialist (Nazi) beliefs through their lyrics and imagery. These beliefs often include: white supremacy, racial separatism, antisemitism, heterosexism, and Nazi interpretations of paganism or Satanism (Nazi mysticism). According to Mattias Gardell, NSBM musicians see "national socialism as a logical extension of the political and spiritual dissidence inherent in black metal.[69] Bands whose members hold Nazi beliefs but do not express these through their lyrics are generally not considered NSBM by black metal musicians, but are labelled as such in media reports.[70] Some black metal bands have made references to Nazi Germany purely for shock value, much like some punk rock and heavy metal bands. According to Christian Dornbusch and Hans-Peter Killguss, völkisch pagan metal and neo-Nazism are the current trends in the black metal scene, and are affecting the broader metal scene.[71] Mattias Gardell, however, sees NSBM artists as a minority within black metal.[69]

See also

Notes

  • Hebdige, Dick. Subculture: The Meaning of Style. London: Fletcher & Son ltd, 1979.
  1. ^ Intelligence Report: a project of the Southern Poverty Law Center, Issues 133-136; Southern Poverty Law Center, Klanwatch Project, Southern Poverty Law Center. Militia Task Force, Publisher Klanwatch, 2009.
  2. ^ a b c d Messner, Beth A., Art Jipson, Paul J. Becker and Bryan Byers. 2007. "The Hardest Hate: A Sociological Analysis of Country Hate Music". Popular Music and Society. 30(4):513-531.
  3. ^ a b c d e f g Dominic J. Pulera, Sharing the Dream: White Males in a Multicultural America, pages 309-311.
  4. ^ Barbara Perry, Hate Crimes, Greenwood Publishing Group, ISBN 0275995690, 9780275995690, 2009, pages 51-2.
  5. ^ "Racist Music: Publication, Merchandising and Recruitment", Cyber racism ,Race Discrimination Unit, HREOC, October 2002.
  6. ^ Anne Rooney, Race Hate, Evans Brothers, 2006, ISBN 0237527170, 9780237527174, page 29.
  7. ^ David Bianculli, Vh1 Special Goes Behind The (racist) Music, New York Daily News, February 18, 2002.
  8. ^ Abraham Foxman, "Hate Music: New Recruitment Tool for White Supremacists", Worldpress.org, December 17, 2004.
  9. ^ "Record Label Targets Teens With Hate Message: Sampler CD Of White Power Music Circulating In Numerous U.S. Schools", Ohio/Oklahoma Hearst Television Inc. on behalf of KOCO-TV, December 1, 2004.
  10. ^ Barbara Perry, Hate Crimes, Greenwood Publishing Group, ISBN 0275995690, 9780275995690, 2009, pages 231-2.
  11. ^ Kevin Saunders, Degradation: What the History of Obscenity Tells Us about Hate Speech , NYU Press, 2011, ISBN 0814741444, 9780814741443, page 173.
  12. ^ Jack Levin, Jack McDevitt, Hate Crimes: The Rising Tide of Bigotry and Bloodshed, Plenum Press, 1993, 2009, ISBN 0306444712, 9780306444715.
  13. ^ a b In Inside Organized Racism: Women in the Hate Movement Kathleen M. Blee, University of California Press, 2003, ISBN 0520240553, 9780520240551, pages 160-163.
  14. ^ Adam G. Klein, A Space for Hate: The White Power Movement's Adaptation Into Cyberspace, Litwin Books, 2010, ISBN 193611707X, 9781936117079, pages 76-89.
  15. ^ a b c Vron Ware, Les Back, Out of whiteness: color, politics, and culture, "Wagner and Power Chords: Skinheadism, White Power Music, and the Internet", University of Chicago Press, 2002, ISBN 0226873420, 9780226873428, page 106-118.
  16. ^ a b c d e f g Roger Eatwell, Cas Mudde, Western democracies and the new extreme right challenge, Psychology Press, 2004, ISBN 0415369711, 9780415369718, pages 54-5.
  17. ^ a b David Marchese, "Ugly Hate Machine: White Power Music Takes a Digital Path to the Mainstream", Spin, Jan 2009.
  18. ^ Lee, Russell (1939). "Negro drinking at "Colored" water cooler in streetcar terminal, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma". Prints & Photographs Online Catalog. Library of Congress Home. Retrieved March 23, 2005. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  19. ^ The causes of the war, the reasons for its outcome, and even the name of the war itself are subjects of lingering contention today.
  20. ^ Slavery for the Southern slaves ended when Union armies arrived; they were nearly all freed by the Emancipation Proclamation. Slaves in the border states and those located in some former Confederate territory occupied prior to the Emancipation Proclamation were freed by state action or (on December 18, 1865) by the Thirteenth Amendment.
  21. ^ Glenn Feldman, The Disfranchisement Myth: Poor Whites and Suffrage Restriction in Alabama, Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2004, pp. 135–136
  22. ^ Richard H. Pildes, "Democracy, Anti-Democracy, and the Canon", Constitutional Commentary, Vol.17, 2000, p.27. Retrieved 15 March 2008.
  23. ^ The Nuremberg Laws by Ben S. Austin
  24. ^ Bruce E. Baker, What Reconstruction Meant: Historical Memory in the American South (2007)
  25. ^ The first Klan flourished in the South in the 1860s, then died out by the early 1870s. Their iconic white costumes consisted of robes, masks, and conical hats, and were designed to be outlandish and terrifying.(Elaine Frantz Parsons, "Midnight Rangers: Costume and Performance in the Reconstruction-Era Ku Klux Klan." Journal of American History 92.3 (2005): 811-36, in History Cooperative.) The second KKK flourished nationwide in the early and mid 1920s, and adopted the same costumes and code words as the first Klan, while introducing cross burnings.
  26. ^ as in Birmingham, Alabama
  27. ^ as with George Wallace of Alabama.
  28. ^ McWhorter 2001.
  29. ^ Several members of KKK groups were convicted of murder in the deaths of civil rights workers and children in the bombing of the 16th Street Baptist Church in Birmingham.
  30. ^ Michael Newton, The Invisible Empire: The Ku Klux Klan in Florida
  31. ^ O'Donnell, Patrick (Editor), 2006. Ku Klux Klan America's First Terrorists Exposed, p. 210. ISBN 1419649787.
  32. ^ Chalmers, David Mark, 2003. Backfire: How the Ku Klux Klan Helped the Civil Rights Movement, p. 163. ISBN 9780742523111.
  33. ^ Berlet, Chip; Lyons, Matthew Nemiroff (2000). Right-wing populism in America: too close for comfort.[1] Guilford Press. p. 60. ISBN 9781572305625.
  34. ^ Rory McVeigh, The rise of the Ku Klux Klan: right-wing movements and national politics organizations. University of Minnesota Press. 2009.
  35. ^ a b "About the Ku Klux Klan". Anti-Defamation League. Retrieved 2 January 2010. Cite error: The named reference "ADL" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  36. ^ "Inquiry Begun on Klan Ties Of 2 Icons at Virginia Tech". NY Times. November 16, 1997. p. 138. Retrieved 2 January 2010.
  37. ^ Lee, Jennifer (November 6, 2006). "Samuel Bowers, 82, Klan Leader Convicted in Fatal Bombing, Dies". NY Times. Retrieved 2 January 2010.
  38. ^ Brush, Pete (May 28, 2002). "Court Will Review Cross Burning Ban". CBS News. Retrieved 2 January 2010.
  39. ^ In 1999, the city council of Charleston, South Carolina passed a resolution declaring the Klan to be a terrorist organization.("Klan named terrorist organization in Charleston". Reuters. October 14, 1999. Retrieved 2 January 2010. A similar effort was made in 2004 when a professor at the University of Louisville began a campaign to have the Klan declared a terrorist organization so it could be banned from campus.("Ban the Klan? Professor has court strategy". Associated Press. May 21, 2004. Retrieved 2 January 2010.) In April 1997, FBI agents arrested four members of the True Knights of the Ku Klux Klan in Dallas for conspiracy to commit robbery and to blow up a natural gas processing plant.("Domestic terrorism by the Klan remained a key concern" Dallas.FBI.gov
  40. ^ a b Charles Quarles, The Ku Klux Klan and related American racialist and antisemitic organizations: a history and analysis, McFarland, 1999
  41. ^ "Finally passing: Assessing America's bloodiest war, 150 years later". The Economist. 2011. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  42. ^ Both the Anti-Defamation League and the Southern Poverty Law Center include it in their lists of hate groups. See also Bfrian Levin, Brian, "Cyberhate: A Legal and Historical Analysis of Extremists' Use of Computer Networks in America" in Perry, Barbara, editor. Hate and Bias Crime: A Reader. p. 112.
  43. ^ Forms of protest and/or civil disobedience included boycotts, such as the successful Montgomery Bus Boycott (1955–1956) in Alabama; "sit-ins", such as the influential Greensboro sit-ins (1960) in North Carolina; and a wide range of other nonviolent activities such as the Selma to Montgomery marches (1965) in Alabama.
  44. ^ Civil Rights Act of 1964
  45. ^ William Booth, "America's Racial and Ethnic Divides: One Nation, Indivisible: Is It History?", Washington Post, February 22, 1998.
  46. ^ "Table 1. Annual Estimates of the Population for the United States, Regions, States, and Puerto Rico: April 1, 2000 to July 1, 2009" (CSV). U.S. Census Bureau. December 22, 2009. Retrieved December 24, 2009.
  47. ^ a b Shane K. Bernard, The Cajuns: Americanization of a People. Jackson, Miss: University Press of Mississippi, 2003, p. 63f.
  48. ^ a b John Broven, South to Louisiana: The Music of the Cajun Bayous. Gretna, Louisiana: Pelican, 1983, p. 252f. ISBN 0882896083. Cite error: The named reference "Broven" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  49. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Nick Pittman, "Johnny Rebel Speaks: The true-to-life story of how a South Louisiana man with a guitar and a belief became a forefather of white power music.", in: Times of Acadiana, Lafayette, Louisiana, ca. 2000.
  50. ^ Herman, 2006.
  51. ^ Pittman, 2003; Johnny Rebel – Klassic Klan Kompositions.
  52. ^ Condran, Ed (July 31, 1998). "Stern Producer Flourishes By The Skin Of His Teeth". The Morning Call. {{cite news}}: Italic or bold markup not allowed in: |publisher= (help)
  53. ^ James, Renee A. (October 1, 2006). "Hmmm? Stern's critics are plugged into regular radio". The Morning Call. {{cite news}}: Italic or bold markup not allowed in: |publisher= (help)
  54. ^ Sullivan, James (December 14, 2005). "Love him or hate him, Stern is a true pioneer". MSNBC.
  55. ^ Brown, Timothy S. (2004). "Subcultures, pop music and politics: skinheads and "Nazi rock" in England and Germany". Journal of Social History.
  56. ^ "Smiling Smash: An Interview with Cathal Smyth, a.k.a Chas Smash, of Madness - Ska/Reggae - 08/16/99". Web.archive.org. Retrieved 31 August 2010.
  57. ^ "Special Articles". Reggaereggaereggae.com. Retrieved 31 August 2010.
  58. ^ Brown, 2004.
  59. ^ Hebdige, 1979, pg 58.
  60. ^ Dalton, Stephen, "Revolution Rock", Vox, June 1993
  61. ^ Robb, John (2006). Punk Rock: An Oral History (London: Elbury Press). ISBN 0-09-190511-7
  62. ^ Turner, Jeff; Garry Bushell (2005). Cockney Reject. London: John Blake Publishing Ltd. ISBN 1 84454 0545
  63. ^ "Cockney Rejects". Oisite.tripod.com. Retrieved 31 August 2010.
  64. ^ "Dementlieu Punk Archive: Washington, DC: Iron Cross interview from If This Goes On 2". Dementlieu.com. Retrieved 31 August 2010.
  65. ^ "WNP - Memoirs of a Street Soldier Part 8". Aryanunity.com. Retrieved 31 August 2010.
  66. ^ "Skrewdriver- A Fan's View". Punk77.co.uk. Retrieved 31 August 2010.
  67. ^ "Skrewdriver- Press Cuttings". Punk77.co.uk. Retrieved 31 August 2010.
  68. ^ Diamond in the Dust - The Ian Stuart Biography
  69. ^ a b Mattias Gardell, Gods of the Blood (2003), p.307
  70. ^ Rechtes Neuheiden-Festival mit Nazi-Runen im "SO 36"
  71. ^ Unheilige Allianzen, page 290

Further reading

  • Farmelo, Allen. "Another History of Bluegrass: The Segregation of American Popular Music, 1820-1900." Popular Music and Society, 25.1-2 (2001): 179-204.
  • Hill, Jane H. (2008). The Everyday Language of White Racism. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell.
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