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| notable_students =Syed Dildar Hussain
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| known_for =Pakistan's atomic program<br>HMX Cold test of 1983<br>[[Project-706]]<br>[[Chagai-I]]<br>his research work on the [[cold fission]], [[Cold fusion]] and [[Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy]] and [[particle detector]]s at [[CERN]]
| known_for =[[Pakistan and its Nuclear Detterent Program|Nuclear deterrent Programme]]<br>[[Electron capture|Electron]] and [[Proton decay]]<br>[[Chagai-I|Chagai Nuclear Tests]]<br>[[Theoretical physics]]
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'''Ishfaq Ahmad''' ([[Urdu]]: '''اشفاق احمد'''), [[Doctor of Science|D.Sc.]], [[Minister of State]], ''[[Sitara-i-Imtiaz]], [[Hilal-i-Imtiaz]], [[Nishan-i-Imitiaz]]'', [[Fellow of the Pakistan Academy of Sciences|FPAS]], (born 3 November 1930) is a [[Pakistani people|Pakistani]] [[nuclear physicist]], and well-known educationist and academic from Pakistan. Having specialized in [[theoretical physics|Theoretical]] and [[High-energy physics]], Ahmad played an important role in establishing [[Pakistan Institute of Engineering and Applied Sciences|research institute]]s in [[National Center for Physics|Nuclear science]]s in Pakistan. During 1980s, Ahmad served as a lead designer of [[Compact Muon Solenoid|CMS]] and [[Large Hadron Collider|LHC]] [[Collider|Collider]] at the [[European Organization for Nuclear Research|Conseil Européen pour la Recherche Nucléaire]] (CERN). Prior to 1960s, he also led the [[Nuclear reactor technology|Reactor technology]] government projects in [[IAEA Areas|different countries]], and served as lead project coordinator on behalf of [[International Atomic Energy Agency]] (IAEA).
'''Ishfaq Ahmad''' ([[Urdu]]: '''اشفاق احمد'''), [[Doctor of Science|D.Sc.]], [[Minister of State]], ''[[Sitara-i-Imtiaz|SI]], [[Hilal-i-Imtiaz|HI]], [[Nishan-i-Imitiaz|NI]]'', [[Fellow of the Pakistan Academy of Sciences|FPAS]], (born 3 November 1930) is a [[Pakistani people|Pakistani]] [[nuclear physicist]], and well-known educationist and academic from Pakistan. A versatile theoretical physicist.<ref>{{Citation
| last =Shabbir
| first =Usman
| author-link =
| last2 =
| first2 =
| author2-link =
| title =Munir Ahmad Khan and PAEC's other achievements
| date =2010 (Updated)
| year =May of 2004
| url =http://www.pakdef.info/nuclear&missile/munirahmad1.html
| accessdate = }}.</ref>, Ahmad made significant contributions in [[High-energy physics|particle]] and [[quantum electrodynamics]], Ahmad played an important role in establishing [[Pakistan Institute of Engineering and Applied Sciences|research institute]]s in [[National Center for Physics|Nuclear science]]s in Pakistan. During 1970s, Ahmad was the head of the Nuclear Physics Division at the secret [[Pakistan Institute of Nuclear Science and Technology|Pinstech Laboratory]] which developed the first designs of [[atomic bomb]]s. There, he played an influential role in leading the physics calculations in the [[Critical mass|critical mass]] of the weapons, and did theoretical work on the implosion method used in the weapons.


Prior to 1960s, he also led the [[Nuclear reactor technology|Reactor technology]] government projects in [[IAEA Areas|different countries]], and served as lead project coordinator on behalf of [[International Atomic Energy Agency]] (IAEA).
⚫
He is currently [[Science Advisor|Science adviser]] to the [[Prime Minister of Pakistan|Prime minister]] on [[Pakistan and weapons of mass destruction|Strategic]] and [[Science in Pakistan|Scientific programs]], with the status of [[Cabinet of Pakistan|Federal Minister]]. A scientist and [[physicist]] by [[Professional physicist|profession]], Ahmad was the chairman of [[Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission]] (PAEC) from 1991–2001 when he replaced his life long friend [[Munir Ahmad Khan]] as chairman in 1991. One of the top [[Nuclear physics|Nuclear]] [[physicist]] in Pakistan, Ahmad played an important, pioneering, and a central figurative role in both [[Pakistan and its Nuclear Detterent Program|Nuclear weapons research program]] and the [[Nuclear power in Pakistan|Nuclear power generation program]].


⚫
He is currently [[Science Advisor|Science adviser]] to the [[Prime Minister of Pakistan|Prime minister]] on [[Pakistan and weapons of mass destruction|Strategic]] and [[Science in Pakistan|Scientific programs]], with the status of [[Cabinet of Pakistan|Federal Minister]]. A scientist and [[physicist]] by [[Professional physicist|profession]], Ahmad was the chairman of [[Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission]] (PAEC) from 1991–2001 when he replaced his life long friend [[Munir Ahmad Khan]] as chairman in 1991.
⚫
Having headed the [[Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission]] (PAEC), Ahmad rose to international fame in May of 1998 when he headed PAEC as a chairman while conducted the country's [[Chagai-I|successful nuclear tests]] in [[Baluchistan (Pakistan)|Balochistan Province]].

⚫
One of the top [[Nuclear physics|Nuclear]] [[physicist]] in Pakistan, Ahmad played an important, pioneering, and a central figurative role in both [[Pakistan and its Nuclear Detterent Program|Nuclear weapons research program]] and the [[Nuclear power in Pakistan|Nuclear power generation program]]. Having headed the [[Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission]] (PAEC), Ahmad rose to international fame in May of 1998 when he headed PAEC as a chairman while conducted the country's [[Chagai-I|successful nuclear tests]] in [[Baluchistan (Pakistan)|Balochistan Province]].


==Education==
==Education==

Revision as of 04:03, 8 March 2011

Ishfaq Ahmad
From Left to Right:Dr. Ahsan Mubarak, Dr. Ishfaq Ahmad, Dr. Eynulla Madatov and Dr. Elchin Khalilov (Far right)
Born (1930-11-03) 3 November 1930 (age 93)
Gurdaspur, Gurdaspur district, State of Punjab, British India present-day India
NationalityPakistani
CitizenshipPakistan
Alma materUniversité de Montréal, Canada
Montreal Laboratory, Canada
University of Punjab, Pakistan
Known forNuclear deterrent Programme
Electron and Proton decay
Chagai Nuclear Tests
Theoretical physics
AwardsNishan-i-Imitiaz (1998)
Hilal-i-Imtiaz (1995)
Sitara-i-Imtiaz (1989)
Scientific career
FieldsNuclear Physics
InstitutionsPakistan Atomic Energy Commission (PAEC)
Pakistan Institute of Nuclear Science and Technology (PINSTECH)
Atomic Energy of Canada Limited (AECL)
European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN)
International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA)
Risø National Laboratory for Nuclear Energy (RNL)
Meuse/Haute Marne Underground Research Laboratory (URL)
Government College University (GCU)
Quaid-e-Azam University (Qau)
Global Change Impact Studies Centre (GCISC)
Planning Commission of Pakistan (PCP)
Doctoral advisorGeorge Laurénce
Other academic advisorsJohn Cockcroft
Tahir Hussain
Notable studentsSyed Dildar Hussain

Ishfaq Ahmad (Urdu: اشفاق احمد), D.Sc., Minister of State, SI, HI, NI, FPAS, (born 3 November 1930) is a Pakistani nuclear physicist, and well-known educationist and academic from Pakistan. A versatile theoretical physicist.[1], Ahmad made significant contributions in particle and quantum electrodynamics, Ahmad played an important role in establishing research institutes in Nuclear sciences in Pakistan. During 1970s, Ahmad was the head of the Nuclear Physics Division at the secret Pinstech Laboratory which developed the first designs of atomic bombs. There, he played an influential role in leading the physics calculations in the critical mass of the weapons, and did theoretical work on the implosion method used in the weapons.

Prior to 1960s, he also led the Reactor technology government projects in different countries, and served as lead project coordinator on behalf of International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA).

He is currently Science adviser to the Prime minister on Strategic and Scientific programs, with the status of Federal Minister. A scientist and physicist by profession, Ahmad was the chairman of Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission (PAEC) from 1991–2001 when he replaced his life long friend Munir Ahmad Khan as chairman in 1991.

One of the top Nuclear physicist in Pakistan, Ahmad played an important, pioneering, and a central figurative role in both Nuclear weapons research program and the Nuclear power generation program. Having headed the Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission (PAEC), Ahmad rose to international fame in May of 1998 when he headed PAEC as a chairman while conducted the country's successful nuclear tests in Balochistan Province.

Education

Ahmad received his early education from Gurdaspur, Punjab British India. After the Indian Partition, Ahmad and the majority of his family migrated to Lahore, West-Pakistan. Motivated and passionate to study Physics, Ahmad attended Punjab University where he received his B.Sc. in Physics in 1949, followed M.Sc. in Physics in 1951. His master thesis were entitled, "Nuclear Energy and its Physics" from the same institution. He was also awarded Honours diploma with his Master's degree in science.[2] His Undergraduate and Postgraduate education was supervised by renowned nuclear physicist dr. Tahir Hussain. On his mentor's advise, Ahmad traveled to Canada to attend world's prestigious university known for its nuclear technology research.

In 1954, he went to Quebec, Canada under a Columbo Plan Fellowship program to pursue graduate studies in Nuclear physics at the Université de Montréal.[3] He did a two year long course in Particle physics under the supervision of dr. John Cockcroft in 1957. In 1959, he was awarded a D.Sc. in Nuclear Physics where his doctoral thesis were written on "The Atom bombardment in Nuclear fission and Pseudo-vector meson's physics". His thesis were written on fluent French and English language, and reluctantly returned to Pakistan under the terms of Colombo Plan contract.

During his doctoral studies, Ahmad joined the Montreal Laboratory and served there as lead senior scientist. At the laboratory, he gained expertise, under the supervision of numerous scientists who previously had work on Manhattan Project, to the fields of Thermonuclear fission, Thermonuclear fusion technology, Reactor Technology and Physics. Upon his return to Pakistan, he joined the Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission (PAEC) as a senior scientist.

European Organization for Nuclear Research

From 1952 to 1960, Ahmad served as a visiting professor of nuclear physics at the Government College University. The same year, he joined Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission as a senior scientific officer. He kept his position till 1966. In 1961, he went to Copenhagen, Denmark, where he become a visiting post-doctorals fellow at the Niels Bohr Institute of Theoretical Physics.[4] In 1962, Ahmad joined European Organization for Nuclear Research or CERN as both a post-doctoral fellow and nuclear physicist. As a senior research scientist at the CERN, Ahmad extensively carried out his research at Compact Muon Solenoid (CMS). Ahmad led the designing of ISC and Synchrocyclotron collider during his stay in CERN. From 1963–1964, Ahmad traveled to Canada and joined his Alma mater, Université de Montréal and University of Ottawa as a post doctoral research fellow.[5] There, he began to carried out his research in the field of nuclear physics at the Montreal Laboratory. Prior to 1960s, he also performed experiments at Risø DTU National Laboratory for Sustainable Energy of Denmark and the Meuse/Haute Marne Underground Research Laboratory of France.[6]

Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission

Main articles: Kirana Hills, Ras Koh Hills, and Chagai Hills

He also served as a secretary of PAEC from 1967–1969. In 1969, he became a post-doctoral Fellow at both the Sorbonne, University of Paris (France). The same year, he came back to Pakistan, where he was as appointed a director of Pakistan Atomic Energy Center (PAEC) Lahore. He kept his position till 1971 whereas he was appointed as a director of Pakistan Institute of Nuclear Science and Technology (PINSTECH).[7] He served as director of the institution till 1976. Ahmad eye-witnessed the Indo-Pak War of 1971 and was one of the scientist who attended the Multan meeing in 1972.[8] Fearing, since India also tested its nuclear device in 1974, the Indian nukes will be a major threat to his country. Ishfaq Ahmad led the group of reputed nuclear physicists and chemists who discovered the sustainable process of nuclear chain reaction for the Pakistan's atomic weapon. Ishfaq Ahmad, along with the noted nuclear physicists, began to work on a nuclear device.[9] He was made director-general of the "Nuclear Physics Group (NPG)" which was mandated to calculate nuclear fission and critical mass problems. In 1976, the "Nuclear Physics Group" under the leadership of Ishfaq Ahmad, successfully produced the 10 kilograms of Yellowcake at the "PINSTECH's New Labs". The NPG also enriched the isotopes 235U and successfully made the UF6.[10] The UF6 was sent to then-known as Engineering Research Laboratories (ERL) for the process of Gas centrifuge. The NPG at the PINSTECH's Laboratories, produced the 239Pu, the weapon grade plutonium at the PINSTECH Atomic Research Reactors in 1983 which was later tested with the nuclear device.[11]

He has also been chief scientist and senior nuclear physicist at the PAEC since 1976. After serving for thirteen years as member (technical) of the same commission, he became a senior member of Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission (PAEC) from 1988 till 1991. Ishfaq Ahmad was a most trusted and close life long friend of Munir Ahmad Khan. Dr. Ishfaq Ahmad accompanied Munir Ahmad Khan in every PAEC's confidential meetings and IAEA's international conferences. Ahmad also supervised the most secretive and classified projects of PAEC that was started by the Munir Ahmad Khan. During his career, dr. Ishfaq Ahmad oversaw the development of the nuclear fuel cycle and weapon development programs as Member Technical, PAEC, under Chairman Mr. Munir Ahmad Khan. After the retirement of Khan, Ahmad subsequently became the head of Pakistan's nuclear weapons and power program which he headed for 10 years.

As a scientist, he was heavily involved with the magnetic rings that were installed with the oscillators that triggered the nuclear fission reflectors in the atomic bomb. He played a crucial role in a Ionizing radiation and DU (oxide, metal and uranium hexafluoride (or UF6) gas production complex at Dera Ghazi Khan, which provides the crucial feedstock for uranium enrichment at Kahuta; and other classified projects of PAEC. As chairman of PAEC, he saw the culmination of the nuclear weapons programme, begun under Munir Ahmad Khan, from "covert to overt" status at the time of the Chaghi tests in 1998.[12]

It was Ahmad's leadership, Pakistan conducted a first cold test of nuclear weapon design, His Majesty Explosives (HMX), in 11 March 1983.[13] The cold test of a nuclear device was witnessed by the PAEC Chairman Mr. Munir Ahmad Khan and other senior civilian and military officials. Furthermore, Ahmad and his team of physicists continued cold testing different models of nuclear weapons from 1983 to 1993.[14] Ahmad was the head of a team of nuclear physicists at Kharan desert and Chagai Hills, where he sat up a nuclear physics and nuclear implosion device research labs.

Career at International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA)

Dr. Ahmad has been associated with IAEA since 1960s. At IAEA, he is considered a most-senior scientist and advocated for peaceful use of nuclear energy. Dr. Ishfaq Ahmad has led the Pakistan delegation to the Board of Governors of the International Atomic Energy Agency and the General Conference (United Nations). Ahmad also worked at IAEA as a nuclear physicist there, where he was in charge of nuclear reactor physics laboratories. Dr. Ishfaq Ahmad was part of the United Nations Monitoring, Verification and Inspection Commission, where he was co-in charge of Iraq's nuclear weapon inspection.

China-Pakistan Nuclear Power Plant Corporation

Main article: China-Pakistan Power Plant Corporation

In 1986, Dr. Ishfaq Ahmad, along with famous nuclear engineer and Chairman, PAEC Munir Ahmad Khan (late), visited People's Republic of China where they led PAEC to reach civilian nuclear technology agreement with China. He, along with his fellow Chinese nuclear scientists, helped Pakistan and China to form a joint-nuclear company which is known as China-Pakistan Power Plant Corporation[15]

1998 Pakistan's Atomic Testing

Main article: Chagai-I

Ahmad came to prominence when he headed PAEC to conduct country's nuclear tests in 1998.[16] By the time India tested its nuclear devices, Dr. Ishfaq Ahmad was visiting at Montreal Laboratory with fellow other nuclear physicists. Ahmad quickly left Canada and came back to Pakistan where he was heavily involved in nuclear tests preparations.[17]

After an immediate return, Ahmad received a call from Pakistan Army General Headquarters (GHQ) to report to Prime Minister Secretariat. Ahmad attended several meeting with Prime Minister of Pakistan, Nawaz Sharif where he briefed Prime Minister on the status and capability of Pakistan's nuclear weapon test.[18] After Ahmad's briefing, the Prime Minister gave PAEC order to conduct the Pakistan's first known nuclear tests at the Chagai Hills. The team conducted 40 kt nuclear weapon at the Ras Koh Hills.[19]

Support for Peaceful use of Nuclear Energy

During the tenure in the Commission, he supervised and developed the programmes of PAEC for the defence, energy, agriculture, medicine, industry hydrology etc. PAEC, under the dr. Ahmad, Pakistan heavily focused in its civilian program. Ahmad also advocated for peaceful use of nuclear energy in many international forums. Ahmad, at IAEA, helped Pakistan to lead an agreement between PAEC and IAEA in which IAEA allowed Pakistan to construct and build its nuclear power plant for civil purposes.

Honorary Degrees and Recognition

In 2000, he was awarded the Honorary Degree of Doctorate in Engineering by the Punjab University of Engineering and Technology. In the same year, he was elected a Fellow of the International Nuclear Energy Academy. He is the recipient of the three highest official awards in Pakistan namely Sitara-i-Imtiaz, the Hilal-i-Imtiaz and the Nishan-i-Imitiaz, the last of which was awarded to him in 1998. Dr. Ishfaq Ahmed is consider one of the prominent nuclear physicist in Pakistan.

Heading Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission at CERN

Ishfaq Ahmad worked at European Organization for Nuclear Research as a nuclear physicist in the past. In 1994, dr. Ishfaq Ahmad visited CERN as a PAEC chairman. Since then Dr. Ishfaq Ahmad struggled to reach a contract between CERN and PAEC. In 1997, Dr. Ishfaq Ahmad headed PAEC to reach a contract between PAEC and CERN after elaborate discussions an in-kind contribution worth one million Swiss francs for the construction of eight magnet supports for the CMS detector. In 1998, Dr. Ishfaq Ahmad, as PAEC chairman, reached another contract with CERN. The signing of the agreement was followed by the Dr. Ishfaq Ahmad and dr. Christopher Llewellyn Smith's visit to Pakistan in 1998. The agreement provided an entry point for Pakistani scientists and engineers into the CMS collaboration.

CERN-PAEC Nuclear Deal

In 2000, dr. Ishfaq Ahmad reached another agreement between PAEC and CERN during the official visit of Luciano Maiani to Pakistan. This new agreement covered the construction of the resistive plate chambers required for the CMS muon system. Recently, a protocol has been signed enhancing Pakistan's total contribution to the LHC programme to $10 million. In Press Conference with Luciano Maiani, Dr. Ishfaq Ahmad said "I very much hope and wish that these developments may eventually lead to Pakistan becoming an observer state at CERN".

Contribution to education in Pakistan

Ishfaq Ahmad has played a significant role in the following fields in Pakistan; scientific manpower training, establishment of R&D facilities, indigenous production of nuclear materials, indigenization of peaceful uses of nuclear technology as well as classified applications of nuclear technology. He has also encouraged physics talent test programmes in Pakistan leading to participation in Physics Olympiad. He has been a professor of nuclear physics, nuclear engineering and high energy physics at Quaid-e-Azam University, Islamabad, Pakistan. Since 2001, after his retirement from PAEC Dr. Ishfaq Ahmad has been instrumental for the establishment of the National Center for Nuclear Physics (NCP) at Quaid-e-Azam University and has served as chair of its board of governors.[20] He is a highly cited researcher in the field of nuclear physics, particle detectors, high energy physics, and nuclear technology.

International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis (IIASA)

Main article: International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis

With dr. Ahmad's initiative and honest efforts, CERN is developing cooperation with the International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis (IIASA), an environmental and mathematical research institute based on Laxenburg. He is serving as a Council Member of IIASA which specialization in mathematical modeling and simulation.[21] Dr. Ishfaq Ahmad has been a great advocate for the strengthening of mathematics in the universities and research organizations.

Heading Global Change Impact Studies Centre

Dr Ishfaq Ahmad’s efforts has led to the creation of the Global Change Impact Studies Centre (GCISC) in Islamabad where, for the first time, research on Climatic Change is being undertaken in Pakistan. GCISC serves as the Secretariat of the Prime Minister’s Committee on Climate Change.[22] After the 2005 Kashmir earthquake, the Government has decided to establish a Center for Earthquake studies in Islamabad, under the technical direction of Dr. Ishfaq Ahmad.

Awards and honours

Research Papers

  • Managing nuclear knowledge in a developing country: Pakistan's perspective
  • Absorptions de Mésons π± Rapides dans les Emulsions Nucléaires. – Revised version 1 / Ahmad, Ishfaq (PAEC; CERN Strasbourg-Cronenbourg), printed in 1965.
  • Absorption of Fast π± Mesons in Nuclear Emulsion, University of Ottawa, printed in 1965.
  • Proposal to Study the Interactions of 200 MeV π± -Mesons with Complex Nuclei Proposal to Study the Interactions of 200 MeV π± -Mesons with Complex Nuclei, printed in CERN.
  • Nuclear knowledge management – the role of the IAEA and its Technical Cooperation programme, Ishfaq Ahmad, printed on 10 September 2004 at IAEA
  • Energy for sustainable development and science technology for the future of Islamic World.

Bibliography

  • Water and Technologies: Written and edited By Dr. Ishfaq Ahmad-Global Change Impact Studies Centre.

Fellowships

He is also the recipient of:

  • Member of the Board of Sponsors of The Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists.
  • Member of the Board of Physics Olympiad of Pakistan.
  • An honorary Council Member of International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis (IIASA).

See also

References

  1. ^ Shabbir, Usman (2010 (Updated)), Munir Ahmad Khan and PAEC's other achievements {{citation}}: Check date values in: |year=, |date=, and |year= / |date= mismatch (help)CS1 maint: year (link).
  2. ^ (PAS), Pakistan Academy of Sciences (2010 (Updated)), Dr. Ishfaq Ahmad-PAS {{citation}}: Check date values in: |date= (help).
  3. ^ Rehman, Mumtazul Haque. "Appendix". McGill University. Montreal Religious Sites Project. Retrieved 2002. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  4. ^ Dr. Ishfaq Ahmad (N.I, H.I, S.I), Deputy Chairman / Advisor S&T, Minister of State, Planning Commission. "Minister Planning Commission:Dr. Ishfaq Ahmad (N.I, H.I, S.I)". Planning Commission of Pakistan. Jawaid Azfar, Computer Center of Planning Commission. {{cite web}}: |first= has generic name (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  5. ^ Friends, The Succssful Pakistan in and Around the World. "See:Prof. Ishfaq Ahmad". www.friendskorner.com. Friendskorner.com. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  6. ^ (NPT), Nazaria-i-Pakistan Trust (2003). "Dr. Ashfaque Ahmad". Prominent Scientists of Pakistan. Retrieved 2010. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  7. ^ IAS, Islamic Academy of Sciences (2000). "Prof. Ishfaq Ahmad". Retrieved 2001. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  8. ^ Shabbir, U., See:AQ Khan came on board (paragraph 12)
  9. ^ Rehman, Shaheedur (1999). "The Nuclear Physics Group". Long Road to Chagai. Print Wise Publications. pp. 35–36. {{cite conference}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); Unknown parameter |booktitle= ignored (|book-title= suggested) (help)
  10. ^ Rehman, Shaheed-Ur- (1999). "Pakistan's Finest Hour". Long Road to Chagai. Islamabad, Islamabad Capital Territory: Print Wise Publications. pp. 69–70. {{cite conference}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); Unknown parameter |booktitle= ignored (|book-title= suggested) (help)
  11. ^ Azam, Rai Muhammad Saleh (June 2000). "See: Kirana Hills: The Cold Tests". The Nation. Defense Journal of Pakistan. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  12. ^ Chaudhri, M.A. (May 2006). "Pakistan's Nuke History Part1 From A PAEC Perspective (an eye opener worth the read):Pakistan's Nuclear History: Separating Myth From Reality". Defense Journal of Pakistan. Retrieved 2010. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  13. ^ Sublette, Carey Sublette (2 January 2002). "The Eighties: Developing Capabilities". Retrieved 2010. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  14. ^ Shabbir, Usman, See: Preparing to Build the Bomb, Defence Journal of Pakistan {{citation}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  15. ^ Pakistan's Nuclear-power programme to be expanded (2003-2004). "Pakistan's Nuclear-power programme to be expanded". Pakistan Times (in English). Retrieved 2010. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)CS1 maint: unrecognized language (link).
  16. ^ (NPT), Ashfaque (2003). "Dr. Ashfaque Ahmad". Prominent Scientists of Pakistan. Nazaria-i-Pakistan Trust. Retrieved 2010. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  17. ^ Azam, R.M.S. "The Road to Chagai". {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  18. ^ Sublette, Carey. "The Decision to Test". nuclearweaponarchiece.orf. Carey Sublette. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  19. ^ Ibid, (Pakistan's Leaders Online), See: {{citation}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  20. ^ (CCL Pakistan), Climate Change and LEAD Pakistan. "Profile:Dr. Ishfaq Ahmad Khan Niazi". Center of Climate Change. LEAD Pakistan. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  21. ^ IIASA, International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis (2009). "Council Member:Dr. Ahmad, Ishfaq". IIASA-National Member Organization:Pakistan. Directorate of National Member Organizations and Council Members. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  22. ^ (GCISC), Global Change Impact Studies Centre (2006). "GCISC Advisory Committee". Global Change Impact Studies Centre. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)

Notes

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