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{{campaignbox French and Indian War: Maritimes}}
{{campaignbox French and Indian War: Maritimes}}
[[File:St_John_River_Map.png|thumb|St. John River, New Brunwick]]
[[File:St_John_River_Map.png|thumb|St. John River, New Brunwick]]
The '''St. John River Campaign''' occurred during the [[French and Indian War]] when Colonel [[Robert Monckton]] led a force of 1150 British soldiers to destroy the Acadian settlements along the banks of the [[Saint John River (New Brunswick)]] until they reached the largest village of Sainte-Anne des Pays-Bas (present day [[Fredericton, New Brunswick]]) in February 1759.<ref>John Grenier. ''The Far Reaches of Empire: War in Nova Scotia, 1710-1760.'' Oklahoma University Press.pp. 199-200. Note that John Faragher in the Great and Nobel Scheme indicates that Monckton had a force of 2000 men for this campaign. p. 405. </ref> Monckton was accompanied by New England [[United States Army Rangers|Rangers]] led by [[Joseph Goreham]], Captain [[Benoni Danks]] and [[George Scott (army officer)]].<ref>John Grenier. ''The Far Reaches of Empire: War in Nova Scotia, 1710-1760.'' Oklahoma University Press.pp. 199-200</ref>
The '''St. John River Campaign''' occurred during the [[French and Indian War]] when Colonel [[Robert Monckton]] led a force of 1150 British soldiers to destroy the Acadian settlements along the banks of the [[Saint John River (New Brunswick)]] until they reached the largest village of Sainte-Anne des Pays-Bas (present day [[Fredericton, New Brunswick]]) in February 1759.<ref>John Grenier. ''The Far Reaches of Empire: War in Nova Scotia, 1710-1760.'' Oklahoma University Press.pp. 199-200. Note that John Faragher in the Great and Nobel Scheme indicates that Monckton had a force of 2000 men for this campaign. p. 405. </ref> Monckton was accompanied by New England officer [[Moses Hazen]] and New England [[United States Army Rangers|Rangers]] led by [[Joseph Goreham]], Captain [[Benoni Danks]] and [[George Scott (army officer)]].<ref>John Grenier. ''The Far Reaches of Empire: War in Nova Scotia, 1710-1760.'' Oklahoma University Press.pp. 199-200</ref>


The British started at the bottem of the river with raiding Kennebecais and Managoueche ([[St. John, New Brunswick|City of St. John]]), where the British built Fort Frederick. Then they moved up the river and raided Grimross ([[Gagetown, New Brunswick]]), [[Jemseg, New Brunswick|Jemseg]], and finally they reached Sainte-Anne des Pays-Bas.
The British started at the bottem of the river with raiding Kennebecais and Managoueche ([[St. John, New Brunswick|City of St. John]]), where the British built Fort Frederick. Then they moved up the river and raided Grimross ([[Gagetown, New Brunswick]]), [[Jemseg, New Brunswick|Jemseg]], and finally they reached Sainte-Anne des Pays-Bas.
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[[File:A North View of Fort Frederick built by order of Hon. Col. Robert Monckton on the entrance of the St. John River in the Bay of Fundy, 1758 by Lt Thomas Davies National Gallery of Canada (no 6269).jpg|thumb|St. John River Campaign: The Construction of Fort Frederick (1758)]]
[[File:A North View of Fort Frederick built by order of Hon. Col. Robert Monckton on the entrance of the St. John River in the Bay of Fundy, 1758 by Lt Thomas Davies National Gallery of Canada (no 6269).jpg|thumb|St. John River Campaign: The Construction of Fort Frederick (1758)]]


On September 13, 1758, Monckton and his troops left Halifax and arrived at the mouth of the St. John River a week later. He established a new base of operations by reconstructing the old French fortification Fort La Tour at the east side of the mouth of the river. (Fort Menagoueche and Fort St. Jean were located west of the river mouth.) He re-named it Fort Frederick (present day [[Fort Howe]]).<ref>John Grenier. ''The Far Reaches of Empire: War in Nova Scotia, 1710-1760.'' Oklahoma University Press.pp. 199-200; F. Thériault, p. 11</ref> Establishing Fort Frederick allowed the British to virtually cut off the communications and supplies to the villages on the St. John River.
On September 13, 1758, Monckton and his troops left Halifax and arrived at the mouth of the St. John River a week later. He established a new base of operations by reconstructing the old French fortification Fort La Tour at the east side of the mouth of the river. (Fort Menagoueche and Fort St. Jean were located west of the river mouth.) He re-named it Fort Frederick (present day [[Fort Howe]]).<ref>John Grenier. ''The Far Reaches of Empire: War in Nova Scotia, 1710-1760.'' Oklahoma University Press.pp. 199-200; F. Thériault, p. 11</ref> Establishing Fort Frederick allowed the British to virtually cut off the communications and supplies to the villages on the St. John River.<ref>Plank, p. 68</ref>

Monckton was accompanied by the New England [[United States Army Rangers|Rangers]], which had three companies that were commanded by [[Joseph Goreham]], Captain [[Benoni Danks]] and [[George Scott (army officer)]].<ref>John Grenier. ''The Far Reaches of Empire: War in Nova Scotia, 1710-1760.'' Oklahoma University Press.pp. 199-200</ref>
Monckton was accompanied by the New England [[United States Army Rangers|Rangers]], which had three companies that were commanded by [[Joseph Goreham]], Captain [[Benoni Danks]] and [[George Scott (army officer)]].<ref>John Grenier. ''The Far Reaches of Empire: War in Nova Scotia, 1710-1760.'' Oklahoma University Press.pp. 199-200</ref>


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Monckton did not continue on to Sainte-Anne des Pays-Bas (present day [[Fredericton, New Brunswick]]) because of the pending winter. Then, afraid of being trapped by the frozen river, he turned back to Fort Frederick, and afterwards sailed for Halifax with thirty Acadian families as prisoners. Major Robert Morris was put in charge of the fort.<ref>Maxwell, p. 25</ref>
Monckton did not continue on to Sainte-Anne des Pays-Bas (present day [[Fredericton, New Brunswick]]) because of the pending winter. Then, afraid of being trapped by the frozen river, he turned back to Fort Frederick, and afterwards sailed for Halifax with thirty Acadian families as prisoners. Major Robert Morris was put in charge of the fort.<ref>Maxwell, p. 25</ref>


Almost three months later, on February 1759, Monckton sent Captain McCurdy and his Rangers out from Fort Frederick to go to Ste. Anne’s Point on snow- shoes.<ref>[F. Thériault, p. 15.</ref> Captain McCurdy died of an accident along the way and was replaced by lieutenant Moses Hazen. When the Acadians realized Monckton was going to continue his advance, they retreated to the Maliseet village at Aukpaque (Ecoupag) for protection.
Almost three months later, on February 1759, Monckton sent Captain McCurdy and his Rangers out from Fort Frederick to go to Ste. Anne’s Point on snow- shoes.<ref>[F. Thériault, p. 15.</ref> Captain McCurdy died of an accident along the way and was replaced by lieutenant [[Moses Hazen]]. When the Acadians realized Monckton was going to continue his advance, they retreated to the Maliseet village at Aukpaque (Ecoupag) for protection.

On 18 February 1759, Lieutenant Hazen and about fifteen men arrived at Sainte-Anne des Pays-Bas. The [[United States Army Rangers|Rangers]] pillaged and burned the village of 147 buildings, two Mass-houses, besides all the barns and stables. The Rangers burned a large store-house, and with a large quantity of hay, wheat, peas, oats, etc., killing 212 horses, about 5 head of cattle, a large number of hogs and so forth. They also burned the church (located just west of [[Old Government House, Fredericton]]).


On 18 February 1759, Lieutenant Hazen and about fifteen men arrived at Sainte-Anne des Pays-Bas. The [[United States Army Rangers|Rangers]] pillaged and burned the village of 147 buildings, scalping six Acadians and taking six prisoners.<ref>John Grenier. ''The Far Reaches of Empire: War in Nova Scotia, 1710-1760.'' Oklahoma University Press, p. 202</ref> (The British military paid the rangers for Native - not Acadian - scalps just as the French military paid the Natives for British scalps.) <ref>While the French military hired Natives to gather British scalps, the British military hired [[United States Army Rangers|Rangers]] to gather Native scalps. The regiments of both the French and British militaries were not skilled at frontier warfare, while the Natives and Rangers were. British officers Cornwallis and Amherst both expressed dismay over the tactics of the rangers and the Mi'kmaq (See Grenier, p.152, Faragher, p. 405).</ref> The Rangers burned a large store-house, and with a large quantity of hay, wheat, peas, oats, etc., killing 212 horses, about 5 head of cattle, a large number of hogs and so forth.
As well, the rangers scalped six Acadians and took six prisoners.<ref>John Grenier. ''The Far Reaches of Empire: War in Nova Scotia, 1710-1760.'' Oklahoma University Press, p. 202; Also see Plank, p. 61</ref> There is a written record of one of the Acadian survivors Joseph Godin-Bellefontaine. He reported that the Rangers restrained him and then massacred his family in front of him. There are other primary sources that support his assertions.<ref>A letter from Fort Frederick which was printed in ''Parker’s New York Gazette or Weekly Post-Boy'' on 2 April 1759 provides some additional details of the behavior of the Rangers. Also see William O. Raymond. The River St. John: Its Physical Features, Legends and History from 1604 to 1784. St. John, New Brunswick. 1910. pp. 96-107</ref> (The British military paid the rangers for Native - not Acadian - scalps just as the French military paid the Natives for British scalps. The scalping of Acadians in this instance was unique for the Maritimes. New Englanders had been scalping native peoples in the area for generations, but unlike the French on Ile Royale, they had refrained from authorizing the taking of scalps from person identified as being of European descent.<ref>Plank, p. 67</ref>) <ref> While the French military hired Natives to gather British scalps, the British military hired [[United States Army Rangers|Rangers]] to gather Native scalps. The regiments of both the French and British militaries were not skilled at frontier warfare, while the Natives and Rangers were. British officers Cornwallis and Amherst both expressed dismay over the tactics of the rangers and the Mi'kmaq (See Grenier, p.152, Faragher, p. 405).</ref>


On 18 May 1759 a group of soldiers left the confines of Fort Frederick to go fishing. They were attacked by a group of native warriors and fled to the protection of the fortress walls. One soldier did not make it and the natives carted him off.<ref>Plank, p. 66</ref> Again on 15 June 1759, another party of soldiers was out fishingon the river and was ambushed by a militia of Acadians and natives. During the fight the soldiers fought from the confines of a sloop while others fired cannons from the fort. One of the soldiers was killed and scalped and another was badly wounded. The soldiers pursued the militia but was unable to find it.<ref>Plank, p. 66</ref>
They also burned the church (located just west of [[Old Government House, Fredericton]]).


The command at Fort Frederick was not convinced the village was totally destroyed and sent at least three more expeditions up river to Ste Anne between July and September 1759. The soldiers capture some Acadains along the way, burned teir homes, destroyed their crops and slaughtered their cattle. The September expedition of over ninety men met fierce resistance from the Acadians, and result in the death of at least seven attacking Rangers.<ref>Plank, p. 62, p. 66</ref>
There is a written record of one of the Acadian survivors Joseph Godin-Bellefontaine. He reported that the Rangers restrained him and then massacred his family in front of him. There are other primary sources that support his assertions.<ref>A letter from Fort Frederick which was printed in ''Parker’s New York Gazette or Weekly Post-Boy'' on 2 April 1759 provides some additional details of the behavior of the Rangers. Also see William O. Raymond. The River St. John: Its Physical Features, Legends and History from 1604 to 1784. St. John, New Brunswick. 1910. pp. 96-107</ref>


== Consequences ==
== Consequences ==
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In the spring of 1759 twenty-nine of the refugees from the St. John River area went farther up the St. Lawrence to the area around [[Bécancour, Quebec]], where they successfully established a community.<ref>G. Desilets, p. 15.]</ref>
In the spring of 1759 twenty-nine of the refugees from the St. John River area went farther up the St. Lawrence to the area around [[Bécancour, Quebec]], where they successfully established a community.<ref>G. Desilets, p. 15.]</ref>


After the Campaign, the Maliseet and Acadians of the St. John River surrendered to the British at Fort Frederick<ref>John Faragher, p. 412</ref> and [[Fort Cumberland]].<ref>Stephen E. Patterson, "Indian-White Relations in Nova Scotia, 1749-1761: A Study in Political Interaction," Acadiensis 23, no. 1 (Autumn 1993): 23-59.</ref>
After the Campaign, the Maliseet and Acadians of the St. John River surrendered to the British at Fort Frederick<ref>John Faragher, p. 412</ref> and [[Fort Cumberland]].<ref>Stephen E. Patterson, "Indian-White Relations in Nova Scotia, 1749-1761: A Study in Political Interaction," Acadiensis 23, no. 1 (Autumn 1993): 23-59.</ref> On 2 January 1760 most of the Acadian men who had come to Fort Frederck were boarded onto ships. The next day, the women and children were put on board, and the ship sailed for Halifax. Within weeks of their arrival in the provincial capital the captured Acadians were bound for France.<ref>Plank, p. 62</ref>


== References ==
== References ==

Revision as of 19:14, 14 January 2011

St.John River Campaign: Raid on Grimrose (present day Gagetown, New Brunswick). This is the only contemporaneous image of the Expulsion of the Acadians
St. John River, New Brunwick

The St. John River Campaign occurred during the French and Indian War when Colonel Robert Monckton led a force of 1150 British soldiers to destroy the Acadian settlements along the banks of the Saint John River (New Brunswick) until they reached the largest village of Sainte-Anne des Pays-Bas (present day Fredericton, New Brunswick) in February 1759.[1] Monckton was accompanied by New England officer Moses Hazen and New England Rangers led by Joseph Goreham, Captain Benoni Danks and George Scott (army officer).[2]

The British started at the bottem of the river with raiding Kennebecais and Managoueche (City of St. John), where the British built Fort Frederick. Then they moved up the river and raided Grimross (Gagetown, New Brunswick), Jemseg, and finally they reached Sainte-Anne des Pays-Bas.

There were about Acadian families on the St. John River, with a large concentration in at Ste Anne.[3] Most of whom were had taken refuge there from earlier deportation operations, such as the Ile Saint-Jean Campaign.[4] There was also about 1000 Maliseet.[5]

According to one historian, the level of Acadian suffering greatly increased in the late summer of 1758. Along with campaigns on Ile Saint-Jean, in the Gult of St. Lawrence, at Cape Sable Island and the Petitcodiac River Campaign, the British targeted the St. John River.[6]

Historical context

Main articles: French and Indian War and Expulsion of the Acadians
Marquis de Boishébert - Charles Deschamps de Boishébert et de Raffetot (1753)

The British Conquest of Acadia happened in 1710. Over the next forty-five years the Acadians refused to sign an unconditional oath of allegiance to Britain. During this time period Acadians participated in various militia operations against the British and maintained vital supply lines to the French Fortress of Louisbourg and Fort Beausejour.[7] During the French and Indian War, the British sought to neutralize any military threat Acadians posed and to interrupt the vital supply lines Acadians provided to Louisbourg by deporting Acadians from Acadia.[8]

Acadians had lived in the St. John valley almost continuously since the early seventeenth century.[9] After the Conquest of Acadia (1710), Acadians migrated from peninsula Nova Scotia to the French-occupied Saint John River. These Acadians were seen as the most resistant to British rule in the region.[10] As late as 1748, there were only twelve French-speaking families lived on the river.[11] With the rapid migration of Acadians to the river over the next decade, the area became the center of Acadian life in the maritime region.[12]

The first wave of these deportations began in 1755 with the Bay of Fundy Campaign (1755). During the explusion, the St. John River valley became the center of Acadian and Algonkian resistance to the British military in the region.[13] The leader of the resistance was French Officer Charles Deschamps de Boishébert et de Raffetot. He was stationed at Sainte-Anne des Pays-Bas and from there issued orders for various raids such as the Raid on Lunenburg (1756) and the Battle of Petitcodiac (1755). He was also responsible to locate the Acadian refugees along the St. John River.

After the Siege of Louisbourg (1758), the second wave of the Expulsion of the Acadians began with the Ile Saint-Jean Campaign (campaign against present-day Prince Edward Island), and the removal of Acadians from Ile Royale (Cape Breton, Nova Scotia). As a result, Acadians fled these areas for the villages along the banks of the St. John River, including the largest communities at Grimrose (present day Gagetown, New Brunswick) and Sainte-Anne des Pays-Bas.

Fort Frederick

St. John River Campaign: The Construction of Fort Frederick (1758)

On September 13, 1758, Monckton and his troops left Halifax and arrived at the mouth of the St. John River a week later. He established a new base of operations by reconstructing the old French fortification Fort La Tour at the east side of the mouth of the river. (Fort Menagoueche and Fort St. Jean were located west of the river mouth.) He re-named it Fort Frederick (present day Fort Howe).[14] Establishing Fort Frederick allowed the British to virtually cut off the communications and supplies to the villages on the St. John River.[15]

Monckton was accompanied by the New England Rangers, which had three companies that were commanded by Joseph Goreham, Captain Benoni Danks and George Scott (army officer).[16]

When Moncton and his troops appeared on the St. John River, Boishébert retreated.[17] The Acadians were left unprotected in their settlements at Grimross, Jemseg and Sainte-Anne des Pays-Bas.

Boishébert directed Acadians to go to Quebec City.

Raid on Grimrose

On October 1 Monckton left Fort Frederick with his boats, regulars and rangers above the Reversing Falls. Two days later, they arrived at the village of Grimrose. The village of 50 families that had migrated there in 1755 were forced to abandon their homes. Monckton’s troops burned every building, tourched the fields, and killed all the livestock.[18]

Raid on Jemseg

Col. Robert Monckton

Two days later, Monckton arrived at the village of Jemseg, New Brunswick and burned it to the ground. Then he returned to Fort Frederick at the mouth of the St. John River..[19]

Raid on Sainte-Anne des Pays-Bas

Monckton did not continue on to Sainte-Anne des Pays-Bas (present day Fredericton, New Brunswick) because of the pending winter. Then, afraid of being trapped by the frozen river, he turned back to Fort Frederick, and afterwards sailed for Halifax with thirty Acadian families as prisoners. Major Robert Morris was put in charge of the fort.[20]

Almost three months later, on February 1759, Monckton sent Captain McCurdy and his Rangers out from Fort Frederick to go to Ste. Anne’s Point on snow- shoes.[21] Captain McCurdy died of an accident along the way and was replaced by lieutenant Moses Hazen. When the Acadians realized Monckton was going to continue his advance, they retreated to the Maliseet village at Aukpaque (Ecoupag) for protection.

On 18 February 1759, Lieutenant Hazen and about fifteen men arrived at Sainte-Anne des Pays-Bas. The Rangers pillaged and burned the village of 147 buildings, two Mass-houses, besides all the barns and stables. The Rangers burned a large store-house, and with a large quantity of hay, wheat, peas, oats, etc., killing 212 horses, about 5 head of cattle, a large number of hogs and so forth. They also burned the church (located just west of Old Government House, Fredericton).

As well, the rangers scalped six Acadians and took six prisoners.[22] There is a written record of one of the Acadian survivors Joseph Godin-Bellefontaine. He reported that the Rangers restrained him and then massacred his family in front of him. There are other primary sources that support his assertions.[23] (The British military paid the rangers for Native - not Acadian - scalps just as the French military paid the Natives for British scalps. The scalping of Acadians in this instance was unique for the Maritimes. New Englanders had been scalping native peoples in the area for generations, but unlike the French on Ile Royale, they had refrained from authorizing the taking of scalps from person identified as being of European descent.[24]) [25]

On 18 May 1759 a group of soldiers left the confines of Fort Frederick to go fishing. They were attacked by a group of native warriors and fled to the protection of the fortress walls. One soldier did not make it and the natives carted him off.[26] Again on 15 June 1759, another party of soldiers was out fishingon the river and was ambushed by a militia of Acadians and natives. During the fight the soldiers fought from the confines of a sloop while others fired cannons from the fort. One of the soldiers was killed and scalped and another was badly wounded. The soldiers pursued the militia but was unable to find it.[27]

The command at Fort Frederick was not convinced the village was totally destroyed and sent at least three more expeditions up river to Ste Anne between July and September 1759. The soldiers capture some Acadains along the way, burned teir homes, destroyed their crops and slaughtered their cattle. The September expedition of over ninety men met fierce resistance from the Acadians, and result in the death of at least seven attacking Rangers.[28]

Consequences

The St. John River Campaign resulted in famine that winter for the few Acadians that remained.

Canada’s Governor Vaudreuil reported 1600 Acadians immigrated to Québec City in 1759. During this same winter, Quebec City also suffered a famine and a small pox epidemic broke out killing over 300 of the Acadian refugees.[29] Some returned to St. John only to be imprisoned on Georges Island (Nova Scotia).

In the spring of 1759 twenty-nine of the refugees from the St. John River area went farther up the St. Lawrence to the area around Bécancour, Quebec, where they successfully established a community.[30]

After the Campaign, the Maliseet and Acadians of the St. John River surrendered to the British at Fort Frederick[31] and Fort Cumberland.[32] On 2 January 1760 most of the Acadian men who had come to Fort Frederck were boarded onto ships. The next day, the women and children were put on board, and the ship sailed for Halifax. Within weeks of their arrival in the provincial capital the captured Acadians were bound for France.[33]

References

Secondary sources

  • Stephen Patterson, Colonial Wars and Aboriginal Peoples.
  • John Grenier. The Far Reaches of Empire: War in Nova Scotia, 1710-1760. Oklahoma University Press.pp. 199–200
  • Geoffrey Plank. "New England Soldiers in the Saint John River Valley: 1758-1760" in New England and the Maritime provinces: connections and comparisons By Stephen Hornsby, John G. Reid. McGill-Queen's University Press. 2005. pp. 59–73
  • John Faragher. A Great and Nobel Scheme. Norton. 2005. p. 405.
  • William O. Raymond. The River St. John: Its Physical Features, Legends and History from 1604 to 1784. St. John, New Brunswick. 1910. pp. 96-107
  • Le village acadien de la Pointe-Sainte-Anne (Fredericton), Fidèle Thériault
  • L.M.B. Maxwell The History of Central New Brunswick, 1937. (Republish in 1984 by the York-Sunbury Historical Society.)
  • Macfarlane, W. G. Fredericton History; Two Centuries of Romance, War, Privation and Struggle, 1981

Links

Endnotes

  1. ^ John Grenier. The Far Reaches of Empire: War in Nova Scotia, 1710-1760. Oklahoma University Press.pp. 199-200. Note that John Faragher in the Great and Nobel Scheme indicates that Monckton had a force of 2000 men for this campaign. p. 405.
  2. ^ John Grenier. The Far Reaches of Empire: War in Nova Scotia, 1710-1760. Oklahoma University Press.pp. 199-200
  3. ^ Plank, p. 61
  4. ^ Maxwell, p. 25.]
  5. ^ Stephen Patterson, Before Confederation. John Reid (ed). p. 126
  6. ^ Grenier, 198-200
  7. ^ John Grenier, Far Reaches of Empire: War in Nova Scotia 1710-1760. Oklahoma University Press. 2008
  8. ^ Stephen E. Patterson. "Indian-White Relations in Nova Scotia, 1749-61: A Study in Political Interaction." Buckner, P, Campbell, G. and Frank, D. (eds). The Acadiensis Reader Vol 1: Atlantic Canada Before Confederation. 1998. pp.105-106.; Also see Stephen Patterson, Colonial Wars and Aboriginal Peoples, p. 144.
  9. ^ Plank, p. 164
  10. ^ Georrery Plank. An Unsettled Conquest. University of Pennsylvania. 2001. p. 100.
  11. ^ Plank, p. 164
  12. ^ Plank, p. 164
  13. ^ Plank, p. 150
  14. ^ John Grenier. The Far Reaches of Empire: War in Nova Scotia, 1710-1760. Oklahoma University Press.pp. 199-200; F. Thériault, p. 11
  15. ^ Plank, p. 68
  16. ^ John Grenier. The Far Reaches of Empire: War in Nova Scotia, 1710-1760. Oklahoma University Press.pp. 199-200
  17. ^ Maxwell, p. 25.
  18. ^ John Grenier. The Far Reaches of Empire: War in Nova Scotia, 1710-1760. Oklahoma University Press.pp. 199.
  19. ^ John Grenier. The Far Reaches of Empire: War in Nova Scotia, 1710-1760. Oklahoma University Press.pp. 199-200
  20. ^ Maxwell, p. 25
  21. ^ [F. Thériault, p. 15.
  22. ^ John Grenier. The Far Reaches of Empire: War in Nova Scotia, 1710-1760. Oklahoma University Press, p. 202; Also see Plank, p. 61
  23. ^ A letter from Fort Frederick which was printed in Parker’s New York Gazette or Weekly Post-Boy on 2 April 1759 provides some additional details of the behavior of the Rangers. Also see William O. Raymond. The River St. John: Its Physical Features, Legends and History from 1604 to 1784. St. John, New Brunswick. 1910. pp. 96-107
  24. ^ Plank, p. 67
  25. ^ While the French military hired Natives to gather British scalps, the British military hired Rangers to gather Native scalps. The regiments of both the French and British militaries were not skilled at frontier warfare, while the Natives and Rangers were. British officers Cornwallis and Amherst both expressed dismay over the tactics of the rangers and the Mi'kmaq (See Grenier, p.152, Faragher, p. 405).
  26. ^ Plank, p. 66
  27. ^ Plank, p. 66
  28. ^ Plank, p. 62, p. 66
  29. ^ G. Desilets., pp. 14-15.
  30. ^ G. Desilets, p. 15.]
  31. ^ John Faragher, p. 412
  32. ^ Stephen E. Patterson, "Indian-White Relations in Nova Scotia, 1749-1761: A Study in Political Interaction," Acadiensis 23, no. 1 (Autumn 1993): 23-59.
  33. ^ Plank, p. 62
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