Caterina Sforza

La dama dei gelsomini by Lorenzo di Credi
Portrait of Caterina Sforza.
Location: Museum of Forlì in Italy.

Caterina Sforza (b. 1463 – d. 10 May, 1509), was an illegitimate daughter of Galeazzo Maria Sforza, Duke of Milan and Lucrecia Landriani, wife of the courtesan Gian Piero Landriani.

Grown in the refined court of Milan, which in the 15th century was admired by all Europe, was a Lady of Imola and Forlì, first with her husband Girolamo Riario and later as regent of her first-born son Octaviano.

Descendant of a dynasty of famous condottieri, since a young age she distinguished herself for the bold and reckless actions that put in place to safeguard her possessions from anyone, both in terms of rights and the military defense of her states, when they were involved in the political game of that time.

In her private life she was devoted to various activities, among which lead to "experiment" of alchemy and hunting.

Also, she was a careful, passionate and loving teacher for her many children, from whom only the last, the famous captain Giovanni dalle Bande Nere, inherited the passion for weapons and the leader spirit of the mother.

After a heroic resistance, she had to faced the winning fury of Cesare Borgia. Imprisoned in Rome, after having regained their freedom, she led a quiet life in Florence.

In the last years of her life, she confided to a monk: "If I could write all my life, I would shock the world".

Origin of her family

The House of Sforza don't had ancient traditions of nobility. The founder of the family, Muzio, was one of the many sons of Giacomo Attendolo and Elisa de 'Petrascini, a rich peasant family in Cotignola. Muzio, at the age of thirteen, ran home with a stolen horse to his father and follow the soldiers of Boldrino da Panicale and, in a short time, he covered himself with glory in the service of the city of Perugia, that of Florence, and later in the armies of the Dukes d'Este and the King of Naples. The nickname "Sforza" he was given by the great condottiero Alberico da Barbiano after a battle where Muzio showed courage and recklessness.

Even his son Francesco Sforza follow his steps as a distinguished condottiero, and was considered by a contemporary one of the bests. Thanks to his political skills was able to marry Bianca Maria, the only surviving -but illegitimate- daughter of Filippo Maria Visconti, last ruler of his family in the Duchy of Milan. Bianca Maria always followed her husband in his activities as condottiero and shared with him the political and administrative decisions. In her right as the last representative of the Visconti dynasty, Francesco could become Duke of Milan in 1450 when it appeared the crisis in the government's attempt to Golden Ambrosian Republic.

Francesco and Bianca Maria became Lords of Milan, and them dedicated to beautify the city, increase the economic well-being of his habitants and to consolidate their fragile power.

Galeazzo Maria (Caterina's father), their firstborn and heir, wanted to follow the example of his father and grandfather, who then carried out a career military; however, he never catch the glory of his ancestors because was considered too impulsive and overbearing. Between a battles, he was devoted to hunting, travel, beautiful women and holidays with his friends.

Infancy in the court of Milan

It is believed that Caterina spent her first years of life with the family of her natural mother. The relationship between mother and daughter was never interrupted; in fact, Lucrecia followed the growth of Caterina and she was always next to her in the crucial moments of her life, even in her last years in the city of Florence.

Only after Galeazzo Maria became Duke of Milan in 1466 after the death of his father Francesco, ordered to be brought to court his four children: Carlo (born in 1461; later Count of Magenta), Caterina, Alessandro (born in 1465; later Lord of Francavilla) and Chiara (born in 1467; by her first marriage Countess dal Verme di Sanguinetto and Lady of Vigevano and by the second Lady of Novi) all bore by Lucrecia. The children were entrusted to their paternal grandmother Bianca Maria and, subsequently, all adopted by Bona of Savoy, who became in Galeazzo Maria's second wife on 9 May 1468.

In the Sforza court, attended by writers and artists, Caterina and her siblings received, according to the customs of the time, an humanistic education. At that time, in the Italian courts, the girls of noble families were receiving the same education of her male siblings. In addition to Latin and readings imposed by teachers Caterina learned, in particular by the paternal grandmother, to be proud of the warrior past of her ancestors and never show fear to anybody, passionate even the use of arms and art of govern. From her adoptive mother recalled the maternal warmth and affection that Bona of Savoy poured over the children of her husband, confirmed by the correspondence between them after Caterina had left the Milan court.

The Duke's family has resided in Milan and Pavia that often stayed at Galliate or Cusago, where Galeazzo Maria devoted himself to hunting. Was probably there were Caterina also learned her passion to hunt, who accompany her for the rest of her life.

Marriage

In 1473 she was betrothed to Girolamo Riario, son of Paolo Riario and Bianca della Rovere, sister of Pope Sixtus IV (though rumors persisted that he was a son of the Pope). Caterina replaced her cousin, the eleven-years-old Costanza Fogliani, as Girolamo's bride because (according to some historical sources), the girl's mother refused to allowing the consummation of the marriage until Costanza had the legal age, who then was fourteen. By the other hand Caterina, although at the time had only ten, didn't put any obstacle to the pretensions of her future husband; instead, other sources stated that the marriage of Caterina and Girolamo was celebrated in 1473, but consumated only four years later (1477) when the bride had the legal age of fourteen, without explaining the real reasons of the cancellation of the engagement with Costanza.

Pope Sixtus IV give Girolamo the Lordship of Imola, already an Sforza city, but since them a fief of the Riario family. After a triumphal entry into Imola in 1477, Caterina went to Rome with her husband, where he lived for many years at the service of his uncle Pope.

In the Vatican court

Came to Rome in May 1477, Caterina found a city with a full cultural fervor and obsession for renewal.

Rome, at the end of 15th century was no longer a medieval city, but had not yet the imponent center of artistic references who was a few decades later; however, it would have turned in one of the most important cities of the Renaissance period.

The policy was a mix of intrigue, power was pursued without scruples, the material interests far exceeded those spiritual. Caterina was put away from politics by her husband, and she quickly inserted -thanks to her extroverted and sociable character- in the life of roman aristocracy thanks to the balls, dinners, hunting and social meetings which involved artists, philosophers, poets and musicians.

She, as evidenced by correspondence from that period, immediately felt very important in his new role: flatter and admired as a woman among the most beautiful and elegant, welcomed everywhere with great respect and affectionately praised by the whole social circle (specially by the Pope), soon she transformed from a simple adolescent in a refined and powerful intermediary between the Roman court and other Italian courts, first to all Milan.

In the meanwhile Girolamo, after the premature death of his brother, the Cardinal Pietro Riario, Sixtus IV reserved to him a leading position in his expansion policy, who affecting mainly the city of Florence. He increasing day by day his power and also his cruelty against enemies. In 1480 the Pope, to get a strong domain in the land of Romagna, assigned to his nephew the Lordship of Forlì, who remained vacant after dispossessing from her to the family Ordelaffi. The new Lord tried to earn the favor by erecting magnificent public buildings and churches and by abolishing taxes.

The lives of Caterina and Girolamo changed abruptly with the death of Sixtus IV, which occurred on 12 August 1484.

The Prisoner of Castel Sant'Angelo

At the news of the death of the Pope, all who had suffered by his government threw himself to the looting, bringing the streets of Rome the disorder and terror. Girolamo's residence, the Orsini palace in Campo de' Fiori, was assaulted, stripped of all its content and almost destroyed.

In this time of anarchy Caterina crossed on horseback to occupy the city, on behalf of her husband who was the governor, the rocca (fortress) of Castel Sant'Angelo. From this position and with the obedience of the soldiers, Caterina could monitor the Vatican and dictate the conditions for the new conclave. Unsuccessfully some tried to persuade her to leave the fortress, as the young noblewoman was well decided to give him only to the new Pope.

In the meanwhile, the disorders in the city increased and, in addition to population, it also gave the looting militias arrived at following the Cardinals. The latter did not want attend the funeral of Sixtus IV and refused even to enter into conclave, for fear of being under the fire of Caterina's artillery. The situation was difficult because only the election of a new Pope would put an end to the violence in the city.

Girolamo, at that time, was placed with his army in a strategic position, but not put in place a strong solution. The Sacred College asked him to leave Rome, offering in return the sum of 8,000 ducats, a compensation for the damages in his property, the confirmation of his Lordship over Imola and Forlì and the post of Captain General of the Church. Girolamo accepted. When Caterina was informed of the decisions taken by her husband, increased the quota of her soldiers and is prepared to resistance in order to lead the Cardinals to deal with her. They instead went for a second time to Girolamo, who contradicted his wife. Finally, on 25 October she surrendered the fortress to the Sacred College and left Rome with her family. The Sacred College could well meet in conclave.

Forlì

Once in Forlì, where the order had been maintained thanks to Ludovico il Moro, the Riarios were aware of the election of an old opponent as new Pope: Innocent VIII (the former Giovanni Battista Cybo), who confirmed Girolamo in his Lordships of Imola and Forlì and the appointment of Captain General of the Pontifical army. That appointment, however, was only nominal; the Pope releasing Girolamo from his presence in Rome, depriving it of any real function and payments.

Despite the loss of income that the service guaranteed to the Pope, Girolamo not restored the payment of taxes which the people of Forli were exempted.

This situation lasted until the end of 1485, when public spending became untenable and Girolamo, strongly pushed by a member of the Council of Elders, Nicolò Pansecco, saw his taxation policy and was obliged to levy the taxes. This measure was felt by the population as expensive and, soon, Girolamo became enemies into all the classes of his cities, from farmers to artisans, from noblemens to patricians.

The increase of the taxes, which affect mainly the artisan class and landowners, should also add that the discontent spread among families who had suffered the Girolamo's system of persecution against all whom he suspected of treachery, his enemies conspired against him with a view to making Franceschetto Cybo, nephew of Pope Innocent VIII, lord of Imola and Forlì in his stead. In this climate of dissatisfaction among the Forlì nobility matured the idea of overthrowing the rule of Riario.

Girolamo's death

After more than a half dozen failed conspiracies, Girolamo was killed on 14 April 1488, by a conspiracy led by members of the Orsis, a noble family of Forlì. The palace of the Lord was sacked, while Caterina and her children were made prisoners.

Since the Fortress of Ravaldino, citadel in the central city of defensive system, refused to surrender, Caterina offered to go to convince the castellan, Tommaso Feo. The Orsis believed the good intentions of Caterina because she left her children as hostages, but once inside she let loose a barrage of threats and promises of vengeance against her former captors. According to a famous legend (whithout historical veracity) when they threatened to kill her children still in captivity she exposed her genitals from the castle walls and said that she didn't mind as she was still capable of bearing more. With the assistance of her uncle Ludovico il Moro, Duke of Milan, she was able to defeat her enemies and to regain possession of all her dominions; she wreaked vengeance on those who had opposed her and re-established her power.

Lady of Imola and Forlì

On 30 April 1488 Caterina began her government as a regent of her eldest son Ottaviano, who was recognized by all members of the City and heads of the judiciaries as the new Lord of Forlì the same day, but too young to rule himself.

The first act of her government consisted avenge the death of her husband, according to the custom of the time. She wished that all the people involved were imprisoned, among them the Pope's governor Monsignor Savelli, all the pontifical generals, the castellan of the fortress of Forlimpopoli, because they betrayed her, and also all women of the Orsi and other families who had supported the conspiracy. Soldiers trusted and tried lamps everywhere, throughout the Romagna, anyone of the conspiracy was, at first, managed to flee. The houses owned by imprisoned were razed to the ground, while the valuables were distributed to the poor. On 30 July came the news that Pope Innocent VIII had given to Ottaviano the official investiture of his state "until his line ended." In the meantime, a Forlì was visited by the Cardinal of San Giorgio Raffaele Sansoni Riario della Rovere, officially to protect the orphan children of his late cousin Girolamo but, in agreement with the Pope, to direct the government of Caterina.

The young Countess personally dealt with all issues concerning the government of her state, both public and private. To consolidate her power she exchanging gifts with the Lords of neighboring states and marriage negotiations to her children following the custom of the time. She also revised the Tax system by reducing and eliminating some duties, also controlled all costs, even those derisory. Caterina dealt directly with training of her militia and of weapons and horses. He found the time to interest the laundry and sewing, as any common people. It was her intention that the life in her cities were orderly and peaceful, and showed her subjects to appreciate these efforts.

The states of Forlì and Imola was smaller but because of his geographical position had a certain importance in the political dynamic of that time. In those years there were major events that changed the whole political panorama of all Italy. On 8 April 1492 Lorenzo il Magnifico died, whose policy had wisely kept in calm the claims and rivalries of the various Italian states. On 25 July also died Innocent VIII, who was replaced by Cardinal Rodrigo Borgia, with the name of Pope Alexander VI. His election seemed to be a favorable event for the rule of Caterina, as in the period that she and her husband lived in Rome, the Cardinal often attended their home and he was godfather of their first son Ottaviano. These events directly threatened the stability and peace in Italy. With the death of il Magnifico was restarted the frictions between the Duchy of Milan and the Kingdom of Naples, up to the crisis of September 1494, when, encouraged by Ludovico il Moro, King Charles VIII of France formally claim the Kingdom of Naples as the heir of the House of Anjou. At first Alexander VI also showed support this action.

During the conflict between Milan and Naples Caterina, who knew to be placed in a strategic position to step required for anyone wishing to go south, tried to remain neutral. On one side her uncle Ludovico wrote her that the made an alliance with Charles VIII, and the other Cardinal Raffaele Riario argued in favor of the King of Naples, now also supported by the Pope who had changed his side. Caterina finally chose to support King Ferdinand II and prepared the defend of Imola and Forlì.

Betrayed by her napolitan allies, that the first attack of the French defended, the Countess immediately allied with Charles VIII, leaving his army via libera to reach the Kingdom of Naples. The King of France conquer Naples in only thirteen days. This scared the italian principalities, worried about their independence, gathered in an french Anti-League against Charles VIII, who was forced to a quickly return to France after the defeat of Fornovo.

On this occasion Caterina managed to remain neutral. Not participating in the expulsion of the French, she maintained the support of her uncle Ludovico in Milan that of the Pope.

Second Marriage

Two months after the death of Girolamo was spread the voice that Caterina was near to marry Antonio Maria Ordelaffi, who had started to visit her, all these visits were increasingly long and frequent. With this marriage would end the claims of family Ordelaffi on the city of Forlì. The fact was give to certain and Antonio Maria wrote the Duke of Ferrara that the Countess had made promises to that effect. When Caterina saw how things were made, she imprisoned all those who had helped to spread the news. It also addressed the Senate in Venice that sent Antonio Maria in Friuli, where he remained confined for ten years.

Actually, Caterina fell in love with Giacomo Feo, brother of Tommasso Feo, the castellan who had remained faithful to her in the days following the assassination of her husband. Caterina married him secretly (1489), in order to don't lose the custody of her children and, therefore, the Government of her states.

Giacomo was appointed castellan of the fortress of Ravaldino instead his brother, and was awarded with chivalrous order from Ludovico il Moro. From this marriage was born a son, Bernardino, later called Carlo, in honor of King Charles VIII, which had granted Giacomo the title of Baron of France.

All the chronicles of the period reported that Caterina was madly in love with the young Giacomo. Soon, all fear that she could remove her son Ottaviano from the government and give all to her lover. It had replaced the castellans of the fortresses of her states with her closest relatives: the fortress of Imola was given to Gian Piero Landriani, the husband of her mother, and the fortress of Forlimpopoli to Piero Landriani, her half-brother, while Tommaso Feo was married with Bianca Landriani, Caterina's half-sister. A Tossignano planned a conspiracy to take possession of the fortress by loyals to Ottaviano, who had planned to kill both Giacomo and Caterina. The Countess came to know him and did imprison and execute any plot. Immediately after this conspiracy was immediately was followed by another of Antonio Maria Ordelaffi, who had never resigned to the loss of Forlí, but this also failed.

The power of Giacomo meanwhile was increased and with his cruelty and insolence, he won the hate to all the citizens, even by the children of Caterina. On one occasion slapped in public the eldest of them, but nobody had the courage to defend the boy. After this incident the situation in Forlì became very difficult and the loyals of Ottaviano decided to liberate the city from the domain of Giacomo Feo.

On the evening of 27 August 1495, returning from a hunt, Caterina, her daughter Bianca Riario and some ladies for company, were sitting in court carriage, followed on horseback by Ottaviano, his brother Cesare and Giacomo, as well as many staffieri and soldiers. Giacomo was attacked and mortally wounded, thanks for a conspiracy in which even were included the children of Caterina. The same day Gian Antonio Ghetti, main organizer of the plot succeeded, he went to Caterina satisfied with the outcome, convinced that the first order to kill Giacomo was given by her and the Cardinal Riario. But Caterina was not aware of everything and her revenge was terrible. When her first husband was murdered, she revenge his death according to the criteria of justice of the time; now she acted with anger and sorrow for having the man who love. Caterina is not limited to condemn to death, this death had to be among the most cruel. Not merely to prosecute the women of the conspiracy families, also pursued the children, even those still in swaddling clothes, and all were caught and executed. On many pages the report chronicles the appalling torture and death of many people. Roots of whole families disappeared since them.

The involvement of Caterina's feelings in her revenge prevented to understand her the political reasons that had inspired the plot, whose vast proportions indicate that it was long and carefully prepared. It had joined almost all supporters of Riario, convinced that Caterina had given her tacit consent to the removal of the man who was considered the "usurper". They wanted to support the power of the Riario family and obtain the freedom of the Countess from the psychological prison where she was. Caterina, with the massacre followed by the assassination of Giacomo Feo, lose for ever the favor of her people.

Third Marriage

In 1496 came to the court of Catherine the ambassador of the Republic of Florence, Giovanni de' Medici il Popolano. A son of Pierfrancesco the Elder, belonged to a collateral branch of the Medici family. With his brother Lorenzo had been sent into exile because of his open hostility toward his cousin Piero de 'Medici, succeeded his father Lorenzo the Magnificent in the government of Florence. When in 1494 King Charles VIII of France fell in Italy, Piero was forced to yield an unconditional which allowed the French to move freely into the Kingdom of Naples. The people of Florence was lifted, drove Piero and proclaimed the Republic. John and his brother were able to return to town. They waived the surname of the family and took to Popolano. The government appointed Republican John ambassador of Forlì and commissioner of all possessions Romagna in Florence.

Shortly after having paid tribute to the Countess as ambassador, John was seated, with all his entourage, in the apartments adjacent to those of Catherine in the fortress of Ravaldino [40]. The voices of a possible marriage between John and Catherine and what Ottaviano Riario had agreed to conduct a Florence threatened by the Venetians, alarmed all the principles of the League and the Duke of Milan.

Catherine could not keep hidden at his uncle Ludovico these third wedding. The situation was different from the previous one, since Catherine had the approval of the children and ended up having also that of his uncle. Since marriage was born a son, who was named in honor of Louis Duke of Milan, but who later became famous under the name Giovanni dalle Bande Nere.

Meanwhile the situation between Florence and Venice was getting worse and Catherine, who was always placed on routes of passage of armies, was preparing the defense. He also sent a contingent of knights to the rescue in Florence, headed by the eldest son, accompanied by men he trusted, trained by herself, and the stepfather. Suddenly Giovanni de 'Medici is so seriously ill from having to leave the battlefield to go to Forli. Here, despite treatment, his condition continued to deteriorate and was transferred to Santa Maria in Bath, where he hoped in the miraculous waters. On 14 September 1498 John died in the presence of Catherine, who had been called to go to him urgently.

She established friendly relations with the new pope, Alexander VI, and with the Florentines, whose ambassador, Giovanni de' Medici il Popolano, she secretly married in 1496. Giovanni died in 1498, but Caterina managed with the aid of Ludovico il Moro and of the Florentines to save her dominions from the attacks of the Venetians.

Pope Alexander VI, however, angered at her refusal to agree to a union between his daughter Lucrezia Borgia and her son Ottaviano, and coveting her territories as well as the rest of Romagna for his son Cesare, issued a bull on March 9, 1499, declaring that the house of Riario had forfeited the lordship of Imola and Forlì and conferring those fiefs on Cesare Borgia.

The latter began his campaign of conquest with Caterina Sforza's dominions and attacked her with his whole army, reinforced by French troops and by Louis XII. Caterina placed her children in safety and took strenuous measures for defense. The castle of Imola was held by her henchman Dionigi Naldi of Brisighella, until resistance being no longer possible he surrendered in December 1499 with the honours of war. Caterina absolved the citizens of Forlì from their oath of fealty, and defended herself in the citadel. She repeatedly beat back the Borgia's onslaughts and refused all his offers of peace.

Finally, when her orders for the magazine to be blown up were ignored, Caterina surrendered after a battle in which large numbers were killed on both sides to Antoine Bissey, bailli of Dijon, entrusting herself to the honour of France (January 12, 1500). Thus her life was spared, but she was not saved from the outrages of the treacherous Cesare; she was afterwards taken to Rome and held a prisoner for a year in the Castel Sant'Angelo, whence she was liberated by the same bailli of Dijon to whom she had surrendered at Forlì.

She took refuge in Florence to escape from persecution from the Borgias, and the power of that sinister family having collapsed on the death of Alexander VI in 1503, she attempted to regain possession of her dominions. In this she failed owing to the hostility of his brother-in-law Lorenzo di Pierfrancesco de' Medici and the latter's son Pierfrancesco, as they wished to get her son Ludovico (afterwards Giovanni dalle Bande Nere) into their hands. She took refuge with him in the convent of Annalena, where she remained until her death.

In her book The Warrior Queens: Boadicea's Chariot, British historian Antonia Fraser presents Caterina Sforza as a contrasting figure to her contemporary Isabella of Castile. Fraser points out that whilst the murders ordered by Caterina were no worse than the massacres ordered by Isabella, historians have been much harsher in their judgement of the former. Fraser accounts for this fact by pointing out that Isabella's actions were spiritually sanctioned, carried out in the name of Catholicism, whilst Caterina's were motivated by the personal, secular desire to preserve her property and rights.

See also

• House of Sforza

Sources

This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)

• Machiavelli, The Discourses, English translation by Fr Leslie J. Walker, S.J. (1929). The countess is featured in Bk III, Ch 6 in relating examples of dangers that can arise subsequent to a successful conspiracy.