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'''Kurds''' are the largest people in the world without their own ethnic state.<ref name="Storm">{{cite book|last1=Storm|first1=Lise|title=A Companion to the History of the Middle East|date=2005|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|location=Utrecht|isbn=1-4051-0681-6 |page=475 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qgKE_-HtfoAC&q=kurds+in+Syria&pg=PA475 |chapter=Ethnonational Minorities in the Middle East Berbers, Kurds, and Palestinians}}</ref> There is approximately 27 million [[Kurds]] are spread all over the world today, the vast majority live in the [[Middle East]], especially in Turkey. Large Kurdish communities can also found in [[Kurds in Armenia|Armenia]], [[Kurds in Azerbaijan|Azerbaijan]], [[Kurds in Germany|Germany]], and [[Kurds in Germany|Sweden]]. The majority of the [[Kurds in Syria]] immigrated from Turkey to the [[Mandate for Syria and Lebanon|French Mandate]] the 20th century, in order to escape the harsh repression of the Kurds in that country.<ref name="Storm"/>
'''Kurdish immigration into Syria''' has occurred since ancient times. Today [[Kurds]] form about 10% of [[Syria|Syria's]] population, numbering around 2 million.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Who are Syria's minority groups? |url=https://www.sbs.com.au/news/article/who-are-syrias-minority-groups/d8tjl61xq |access-date=2024-03-28 |website=SBS News |language=en}}</ref> The majority of [[Kurds in Syria]] immigrated from [[Turkey]] to the [[Mandate for Syria and Lebanon|French Mandate]] the 20th century to escape persecution.<ref name="Storm">{{cite book |last1=Storm |first1=Lise |title=A Companion to the History of the Middle East |date=2005 |publisher=Wiley-Blackwell |isbn=1-4051-0681-6 |location=Utrecht |page=475 |chapter=Ethnonational Minorities in the Middle East Berbers, Kurds, and Palestinians |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qgKE_-HtfoAC&q=kurds+in+Syria&pg=PA475}}</ref> Most of these Kurds live in northeast Syria, with smaller communities scattered in various places across the country.


== Pre-modern Kurdish presence in Syria ==
== Background ==
{{Expand section|date=March 2024}}
Kurds are known to have lived in present day Syria since centuries. Since the 7th century, several Kurds were influential religious notables in the region.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Eddé |first=Anne-Marie |url=https://brill.com/view/book/edcoll/9789004474475/B9789004474475_s012.xml |title=Kurdes et Turcs dans l'armée ayyoubide de Syrie du Nord |date=1997-01-01 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-47447-5 |pages=226 |language=en}}</ref> The [[Krak des Chevaliers|Krak de Chevalier]] is known as the ''Hisn al Akrad'' (Fortress of the Kurds) to the Arab speaking population as the [[Mirdasid dynasty|Mirdasid]] prince of [[Aleppo]] entrusted Kurds stationed in the fortress to protect the trade routes between [[Homs]] and [[Hama]] from 1029 t0 1038.<ref name=":0" /> Kurdish warriors were known since the [[Zengid dynasty|Zengi]] recruited a strong contingent of Kurds for their military.<ref name=":0" /> In the [[Ayyubid dynasty|Ayyubid]] era, [[Saladin]] established himself in [[Damascus]], where he had lived during his youth.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=Sultan Saladin Ayubi – ein Kurde, der Geschichte machte {{!}} NAVEND – Zentrum für Kurdische Studien e.V. |url=http://www.navend.de/publikationen/kurdistan-heute/kurdistan-heute-nr-06-juli-august-1993/sultan-saladin-ayubi-ein-kurde-der-geschichte-machte/ |access-date=2022-10-15 |website=www.navend.de}}</ref> His brother [[Turan-Shah|Turan Schah]] was to govern Syria.<ref name=":1" />
Kurds have been known to live in Syria for centuries. Since the 7th century, Kurds were often influential in the area of religion.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Eddé |first=Anne-Marie |url=https://brill.com/view/book/edcoll/9789004474475/B9789004474475_s012.xml |title=Kurdes et Turcs dans l'armée ayyoubide de Syrie du Nord |date=1997-01-01 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-47447-5 |pages=226 |language=en}}</ref> They were also known as warriors, and the [[Zengid dynasty]] had a strong contingent of Kurds in their military.<ref name=":0" /> The [[Mirdasid dynasty|Mirdasid]] prince of [[Aleppo]] stationed Kurds in the fortress of castle [[Krak des Chevaliers|Krak de Chevalier]] to protect the trade routes between [[Homs]] and [[Hama]] from 1029 to 1038.<ref name=":0" /> In [[Arabic]], the castle was known as ''Ḥoṣn al-Akrād'' (حصن الأكراد) meaning "fort of the Kurds."<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Ring |first1=Trudy |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6XMBAwAAQBAJ&dq=%22des+chevaliers%22+krak+name+%22fortress+of+the+knights%22&pg=PA439 |title=Middle East and Africa: International Dictionary of Historic Places |last2=Watson |first2=Noelle |last3=Schellinger |first3=Paul |date=2014-03-05 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-25986-1 |language=en}}</ref>


[[Saladin]], the Kurdish founder of the [[Ayyubid dynasty|Ayyubid]] dynasty, established himself in [[Damascus]], where he had lived during his youth. His brother [[Turan-Shah]] governed Syria.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=Sultan Saladin Ayubi – ein Kurde, der Geschichte machte {{!}} NAVEND – Zentrum für Kurdische Studien e.V. |url=http://www.navend.de/publikationen/kurdistan-heute/kurdistan-heute-nr-06-juli-august-1993/sultan-saladin-ayubi-ein-kurde-der-geschichte-machte/ |access-date=2022-10-15 |website=www.navend.de}}</ref>
== 20th century Immigration waves ==
Large groups of Kurds drifted out of Turkey throughout the interwar period during which the Turkish campaign to assimilate its Kurdish population was at its highest.<ref name="Storm"/> In reference to this, Kurdish studies expert [[Jordi Tejel]] claims:<ref name="Tejel2020">{{cite book |last=Tejel |first=Jordi |url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-030-44877-6_11 |title=The Complex and Dynamic Relationship of Syria's Kurds with Syrian Borders: Continuities and Changes |publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]] |year=2020 |isbn=978-3-030-44876-9 |location= |publication-place=[[Cham, Switzerland|Cham]] |pages=243–267 |chapter=Borders, Boundaries, and the State. Mobility & Politics|doi=10.1007/978-3-030-44877-6_11 |s2cid=226595950 }}</ref>


== 20th century ==
{{blockquote|Nevertheless, Kurdish political parties have never set out to challenge Syrian national borders. In the 1920s, Kurdish activists turned their eyes toward [[Turkish Kurdistan]], their region of origin.}}
=== French mandate era (1920–1946) ===
During the [[interwar period]], the Turkish campaign to [[Turkification|assimilate its Kurdish population]] was at its peak. This caused large groups of Kurds to leave Turkey.<ref name="Storm" /> These first waves of Kurds arrived with the laying of the [[Aleppo]]-[[Baghdad]] section of the [[Berlin–Baghdad railway|Berlin-Baghdad railway]]. According to [[Kurdology|Kurdish studies]] expert [[Jordi Tejel]], Kurdish political parties at the time were not interested in challenging Syrian borders and preferred to focus on their region of origin in [[Turkish Kurdistan]].<ref name="Tejel2020">{{cite book |last=Tejel |first=Jordi |chapter-url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-030-44877-6_11 |title=The Complex and Dynamic Relationship of Syria's Kurds with Syrian Borders: Continuities and Changes |publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]] |year=2020 |isbn=978-3-030-44876-9 |publication-place=[[Cham, Switzerland|Cham]] |pages=243–267 |chapter=Borders, Boundaries, and the State. Mobility & Politics |doi=10.1007/978-3-030-44877-6_11 |s2cid=226595950}}</ref>


Maurice Abadie, a French general and overseer of the [[Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon|French occupation of Syria]], noticed that Kurds were beginning to migrate west of the [[Euphrates]], particularly to northern Syria. The Kurds who settled there lived alongside [[Turkish people|Turks]], [[Syrian Turkmen|Turkmen]], [[Christianity in the Middle East|Christians]] and [[Arabs]], and adopted several customs from their new neighbours.<ref name="Chatty2010" />
Until the beginning of the [[20th century]], [[Al-Hasakah Governorate]] (then called Jazira province) was a "no man's land" primarily reserved for the grazing land under the control of nomadic and semi-sedentary [[Shammar]] and [[Tayy]] Arab tribes.<ref name="Algun">Algun, S., 2011. [https://dspace.library.uu.nl/handle/1874/205821 Sectarianism in the Syrian Jazira: Community, land and violence in the memories of World War I and the French mandate (1915- 1939)]. Ph.D. Dissertation. Universiteit Utrecht, the Netherlands. Pages 18. Accessed on 8 December 2019.</ref> These first waves of Kurds arrived with the laying of the [[Aleppo]]-[[Baghdad]] part of the [[Berlin-Baghdad railway]]. When Maurice Abadie, a French general, was overseeing the French occupation of Syria, he made observations on the history of Kurdish settlement in Syria and the area to the west of the [[Euphrates]] in general:


In the 1920s, the military situation in southeastern Turkey deteriorated.<ref name="Chatty2010">{{cite book|author=[[Dawn Chatty]]|title=Displacement and Dispossession in the Modern Middle East|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8OsgAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA230|year=2010|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-139-48693-4|pages=230–232}}</ref> Between February and March 1925, the Kurdish cleric [[Sheikh Said]] led a [[Sheikh Said rebellion|rebellion]] in the northern parts of [[Diyarbakır Province]] and conquered large swaths of southeastern Turkey, besieging the city of [[Diyarbekir|Diyarbakır]]. The rebellion forced tens of thousands of Kurds to flee their homes in the mountains of Turkey and cross into Syria.<ref name="Fevret">{{cite journal|last=Fevret|first=Maurice |author2=Gibert, André |year=1953|title=La Djezireh syrienne et son réveil économique |journal=Revue de géographie de Lyon|volume=28 |issue=28|pages=1–15|doi=10.3406/geoca.1953.1294 |language=fr|url=http://www.persee.fr/web/revues/home/prescript/article/geoca_0035-113x_1953_num_28_1_1294|access-date=2012-03-29}}</ref> This rebellion was one of the first in a long series of rebellions and conflicts between the Kurdish population and [[Kemalism|Kemalist]] authorities.<ref>Arshak Safrastian, Kurds and Kurdistan, (London: Harvill Press, 1948), p. 169.</ref>
{{blockquote|Over the course of the past century the Kurds have migrated and spread throughout northern Syria.}}


[[French Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon|The French Mandate authorities]] encouraged this Kurdish immigration<ref name="Kreyenbroek1">{{cite book|last=Kreyenbroek|first=Philip G.|title=The Kurds: A Contemporary Overview|year=1992|publisher=Routledge|location=London|isbn=0-415-07265-4|pages=[https://archive.org/details/kurds00pkre/page/147 147]|author2=Sperl, Stefan|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/kurds00pkre/page/147}}</ref> and granted them considerable rights, including Syrian citizenship, in its bigger minority autonomy campaign as part of a [[divide and rule]] strategy. This favorable policy towards Kurdish immigration into Syria was part of the a plan executed by French officer Pierre Terrier (and became known as the Terrier Plan) aiming at creating majority/minority rifts in Syria. The Terrier Plan shaped what is known as the Kurdish policy by mandatory authorities. This plan also used the new immigrants in its "sedentarization" (or pacification) project aiming at reclaiming large swathes of land to make the mandate financially more profitable for the French.
{{blockquote|''Those who have spread to the west of the Euphrates have come from the valleys of Kurdistan. They have gradually settled in and live alongside the Turks, Turkmen, Christians and Arabs, all of whose customs they have adopted to some degree.''<ref>{{cite book |last1=Abadie |first1=Maurice |title=Türk Verdünü, Gaziantep: Antep'in dört muhasarası |date=1959 |publisher=Gaziantep Kültür Derneği |location=Aintab |page=5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=S6w1AAAAIAAJ |access-date=12 June 2022}}</ref>}}


In his zeal to increase the population of the area, Terrier has even sometimes contradicted the directives of the French High Commissariat in [[Beirut]].<ref name="Tejel2007">{{cite journal|last=Tejel Gorgas|first=Jordi|title=The Terrier Plan and the emergence of a Kurdish policy under the French Mandate in Syria, 1926–1936|year=2007 |url=https://www.proquest.com/openview/18cde65865a82c4a49a38b6446e0755a/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=44192|journal= The International Journal of Kurdish Studies|volume= 21 |issue= 1 & 2|pages= 93–108|doi= |pmc= |pmid= |access-date=16 August 2022}}</ref> Some of the new arrivals worked with the French against the local population. A prime example is the Kurdish tribal chief [[Hadjo Agha]] of the influential [[Havergan tribe]] who immigrated from Turkey together with more than 600 families, including arms and sheep, and settled in [[Al-Qahtaniyah, al-Hasakah|al-Qahtaniyah]].<ref name="Fevret" /> In different parts of Syria, the French recruited heavily from the Kurds and other minority groups such as [[Alawite]] and [[Druze]], for its local armed forces.<ref name="Yildiz25">{{cite book|last=Yildiz|first=Kerim|title=The Kurds in Syria : the forgotten people|url=https://archive.org/details/kurdssyriaforgot00yild|url-access=limited|year=2005|publisher=Pluto Press, in association with Kurdish Human Rights Project|location=London [etc.]|page=[https://archive.org/details/kurdssyriaforgot00yild/page/n29 25]|isbn=0745324991|edition=1. publ.}}</ref>
=== French mandate era (1920-1946) ===
During [[World War I]] and subsequent years, thousands of [[Assyrian people|Assyrians]] fled their homes in Anatolia after [[massacres]] and established towns such as [[Qamishli]], Qubour Al-Bid (later renamed [[Al-Qahtaniyah, al-Hasakah Governorate|Al-Qahtaniya]]) and [[Al-Malikiyah]]. During the 1920s, the military situation in southeastern Turkey deteriorated.<ref name="Chatty2010">{{cite book|author=[[Dawn Chatty]]|title=Displacement and Dispossession in the Modern Middle East|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8OsgAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA230|year=2010|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-139-48693-4|pages=230–232}}</ref> In February and March 1925, the Kurdish cleric [[Sheikh Said]] led a [[Sheikh Said rebellion|rebillion]] in the northern parts of Diyarbakir Province and conquered large swathes of southeastern Turkey, besieging the city of [[Diyarbekir]]. The rebellion forced tens of thousands of Kurds to flee their homes in the mountains of Turkey and cross into Syria.<ref name="Fevret">{{cite journal|last=Fevret|first=Maurice |author2=Gibert, André |year=1953|title=La Djezireh syrienne et son réveil économique |journal=Revue de géographie de Lyon|volume=28 |issue=28|pages=1–15|doi=10.3406/geoca.1953.1294 |language=fr|url=http://www.persee.fr/web/revues/home/prescript/article/geoca_0035-113x_1953_num_28_1_1294|access-date=2012-03-29}}</ref> This rebellion was the first major rebellion in a long series of rebellions and conflicts between the Kurdish population and Kemalist authorities.<ref>Arshak Safrastian, Kurds and Kurdistan, (London: Harvill Press, 1948), p. 169.</ref> The number of Kurds settled in the Jazira province during the 1920s was estimated at 20,000<ref name="The Refugee Problem">{{cite book|last=Simpson|first=John Hope|title=The Refugee Problem: Report of a Survey |year=1939 |publisher=Oxford University Press|location=London|asin=B0006AOLOA|page=458|edition=First|url-access=registration|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SxR8uwEACAAJ}}</ref> to 25,000 people.<ref name=McDowall>{{cite book|last=McDowall|first=David|title=A Modern History of the Kurds |year=2005|publisher=Tauris|location=London [u.a.]|isbn=1-85043-416-6|pages=469|edition=3. revised and upd. ed., repr.}}</ref> These numbers made a huge demographic shift in the Jazira's population that was estimated at 40,000 in 1929.<ref name="DeVaumas">De Vaumas Étienne. [https://www.persee.fr/doc/geo_0003-4010_1956_num_65_347_14375 Population actuelle de la Djézireh]. In: Annales de Géographie, t. 65, n°347, 1956. pp. 72-74; doi : https://doi.org/10.3406/geo.1956.14375.</ref>


The French authorities themselves generally organized the settlement of the refugees. One of the most important of these plans was carried out in Upper Jazira in northeastern Syria where the French built new towns and villages such as [[Qamishli]] (in 1926) and [[al-Malikiyah]] (then called Dijlah or Tigre in French) with the intention of housing the Turkish and Iraqi refugees considered to be "friendly" (i.e. Christians and Kurds). This has further encouraged the non-Turkish minorities that were under Turkish pressure to leave their ancestral homes and property, they could find refuge and rebuild their lives in relative safety in neighboring Syria.<ref name="Tachjian">Tachjian Vahé, [https://www.sciencespo.fr/mass-violence-war-massacre-resistance/en/document/expulsion-non-turkish-ethnic-and-religious-groups-turkey-syria-during-1920s-and-early-1930s The expulsion of non-Turkish ethnic and religious groups from Turkey to Syria during the 1920s and early 1930s], ''Online Encyclopedia of Mass Violence'', [online], published on: 5 March 2009, accessed 09/12/2019, ISSN 1961-9898</ref> Consequently, the border areas in al-Hasakah Governorate between Qamishli and al-Malikiyah started to have a Kurdish majority, while Arabs remained the majority in river plains and elsewhere.
[[French Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon|The French Mandate authorities]] encouraged this Kurdish immigration <ref name=Kreyenbroek1>{{cite book|last=Kreyenbroek|first=Philip G.|title=The Kurds: A Contemporary Overview|year=1992|publisher=Routledge|location=London|isbn=0-415-07265-4|pages=[https://archive.org/details/kurds00pkre/page/147 147]|author2=Sperl, Stefan|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/kurds00pkre/page/147}}</ref> and granted them considerable rights, including Syrian citizenship, in its bigger minority autonomy campaign as part of a [[divide and rule]] strategy. This favorable policy towards Kurdish immigration into Syria was part of the a plan executed by French officer Pierre Terrier (and became known as the Terrier Plan) aiming at creating majority/minority rifts in Syria. The Terrier Plan shaped what is known as the Kurdish policy by mandatory authorities. This plan also used the new immigrants in its "sedentarization" (or pacification) project aiming at reclaiming large swathes of land in order to make the mandate financially more profitable for the French. In his zeal to increase the population of the area, Terrier has even sometimes contradicted the directives of the French High Commissariat in [[Beirut]].<ref name=Tejel2007>{{cite journal|last=Tejel Gorgas|first=Jordi|title=The Terrier Plan and the emergence of a Kurdish policy under the French Mandate in Syria, 1926-1936|year=2007 |url=https://www.proquest.com/openview/18cde65865a82c4a49a38b6446e0755a/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=44192|journal= The International Journal of Kurdish Studies|volume= 21 |issue= 1 & 2|pages= 93–108|doi= |pmc= |pmid= |access-date=16 August 2022}}</ref> Some of the new arrivals worked with the French against the local population. A prime example is the Kurdish tribal chief Hadjo Agha of the influential Havergan tribe who immigrated from Turkey together with more than 600 families, including arms and sheep, and settled in [[Al-Qahtaniyah, al-Hasakah|al-Qahtaniyah]].<ref name="Fevret" /> In different parts of Syria, the French recruited heavily from the Kurds and other minority groups such as [[Alawite]] and [[Druze]], for its local armed forces.<ref name=Yildiz25>{{cite book|last=Yildiz|first=Kerim|title=The Kurds in Syria : the forgotten people|url=https://archive.org/details/kurdssyriaforgot00yild|url-access=limited|year=2005|publisher=Pluto Press, in association with Kurdish Human Rights Project|location=London [etc.]|page=[https://archive.org/details/kurdssyriaforgot00yild/page/n29 25]|isbn=0745324991|edition=1. publ.}}</ref>


The French geographer Robert Montagne summarized the situation in 1932 as follows:<ref name="DeVaumas">De Vaumas Étienne. [https://www.persee.fr/doc/geo_0003-4010_1956_num_65_347_14375 Population actuelle de la Djézireh]. In: Annales de Géographie, t. 65, n°347, 1956. pp. 72–74; doi : https://doi.org/10.3406/geo.1956.14375.</ref>
The French official reports show the existence of at most 45 Kurdish villages in Jazira prior to 1927. A new wave of refugees arrived in 1929.<ref name=tejel3 /> The mandatory authorities continued to encourage Kurdish immigration into Syria, and by 1939, the villages numbered between 700 and 800.<ref name=tejel3>{{cite book|last=Tejel|first=Jordi|title=Syria's Kurds: History, Politics and Society|year=2009 |publisher=Routledge|location=London|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5lh9AgAAQBAJ&pg=PT250|isbn=978-0-203-89211-4|page=144}}</ref> These continuous waves swelled the number of Kurds in the area, and French geographers Fevret and Gibert<ref name="Fevret"/> estimated that in 1953 out of the total 146,000 inhabitants of Jazira, agriculturalist Kurds made up 60,000 (41%), semi-sedentary and nomad Arabs 50,000 (34%), and a quarter of the population were Christians.<ref name="Fevret" />


{{Blockquote|We are seeing an increase in village establishment that are either constructed by the Kurds descending from the Anatolian mountains (north of the border) to cultivate or as a sign of increasing settlement of Arab groups with the help of their Armenian and Yezidi farmers.}}
The French authorities themselves generally organized the settlement of the refugees. One of the most important of these plans was carried out in Upper Jazira in northeastern Syria where the French built new towns and villages such as [[Qamishli]] (in 1926) and [[al-Malikiyah]] (then called Dijlah or Tigre in French) with the intention of housing the Turkish and Iraqi refugees considered to be "friendly" (Christians and Kurds). This has further encouraged the non-Turkish minorities that were under Turkish pressure to leave their ancestral homes and property, they could find refuge and rebuild their lives in relative safety in neighboring Syria.<ref name=Tachjian>Tachjian Vahé, [https://www.sciencespo.fr/mass-violence-war-massacre-resistance/en/document/expulsion-non-turkish-ethnic-and-religious-groups-turkey-syria-during-1920s-and-early-1930s The expulsion of non-Turkish ethnic and religious groups from Turkey to Syria during the 1920s and early 1930s], ''Online Encyclopedia of Mass Violence'', [online], published on: 5 March 2009, accessed 09/12/2019, ISSN 1961-9898</ref> Consequently, the border areas in al-Hasakah Governorate between Qamishli and al-Malikiyah started to have a Kurdish majority, while Arabs remained the majority in river plains and elsewhere.


=== After World War II ===
Due to the successive waves of immigration, especially those of Kurds from Turkey, the population of northeastern Syria has seen several big, unnatural jumps (as shown in the table).<ref name="Fevret" /> For example, the Jazira population jumped by 42.7% between 1931 and 1932. Likewise, the population jumped by 45.8% between 1933 and 1935. Another very significant jump happened in 1953 when the population swelled by 30.8% compared to the year before.<ref name=DeVaumas />
Illegal immigration along the border from [[Ras al-Ayn]] to al-Malikiyya continued after WWII. Another major wave of illegal Kurdish immigrants settled down in the region along the border in major population centers such as [[Al-Darbasiyah]], [[Amuda]] and al-Malikiyya. Many of these Kurds were able to register themselves illegally in the Syrian civil registers. They were also able to obtain Syrian identity cards through a variety of means, with the help of their relatives and members of their tribes. It is thought that the land reform encouraged their immigration in an effort to benefit from socialist-style land redistribution. Official figures available in 1961 showed that in a mere seven-year period, between 1954 and 1961, the population of al-Hasakah governorate had increased from 240,000 to 305,000, an increase of 27% which could not possibly be explained merely by natural increase. The government was sufficiently worried by the apparent influx that it carried out a sample census in June 1962 which indicated the real population was probably closer to 340,000. The huge unemployment due to mechanization, harsh working conditions and political instability in Turkey are all factors that have further encouraged immigration out of Turkey.<ref>McDowall, David. Modern History of the Kurds, I. B. Tauris & Company, Limited, 2004. pp. 473–474.</ref>


== Kurdish towns and villages in Syria ==
{{Historical populations
The French official reports show the existence of at most 45 Kurdish villages in Jazira prior to 1927. A new wave of refugees arrived in 1929.<ref name="tejel3">{{cite book |last=Tejel |first=Jordi |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5lh9AgAAQBAJ&pg=PT250 |title=Syria's Kurds: History, Politics and Society |publisher=Routledge |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-203-89211-4 |location=London |page=144}}</ref> The mandatory authorities continued to encourage Kurdish immigration into Syria, and by 1939, the villages numbered between 700 and 800.<ref name="tejel3" /> These continuous waves swelled the number of Kurds in the area, and French geographers Fevret and Gibert<ref name="Fevret" /> estimated that in 1953 out of the total 146,000 inhabitants of Jazira, agriculturalist Kurds made up 60,000 (41%), semi-sedentary and nomad Arabs 50,000 (34%), and a quarter of the population were Christians.<ref name="Fevret" />
|type =
|1929|40000|1931|44153 |1932|63000 |1933|64886 |1935|94596 |1937|98144 |1938|103514 |1939|106052 |1940|126508 |1941|129145|1942|136107 |1943|146001 |1946|151137 |1950|159300|1951|162145 |1952|177388 |1953|232104 |1954|233998
|<ref name="DeVaumas" />
}}


An account of the number of settlements for the new immigrants and their locations in Syrian Jazira is given by the French geographer Etienne de Vaumas. These settlements were created to help the newcomers work in mechanized agricultural projects. As of 1932, in the Kamishliye (Qamishli) region, one town, 28 villages, 48 hamlets and 29 isolated farms for future villages were established. To the north of [[Ain Diwar]] (in al-Malikiyah district, almost 90 villages were erected. The number of villages was estimated by the French intelligence officer in [[Hasakah]] (regional capital) at 250 in 1929. This number jumped to 336 in 1935.<ref name="DeVaumas" />
The French geographer Robert Montagne summarized the situation in 1932 as follows:<ref name="DeVaumas"/>

{{Blockquote|We are seeing an increase in village establishment that are either constructed by the Kurds descending from the Anatolian mountains (north of the border) to cultivate or as a sign of increasing settlement of Arab groups with the help of their Armenian and Yezidi farmers.}}
A group of Kurdish Alevis who fled the persecution of the [[Turkish army]] during the [[Dersim massacre]], settled in Mabeta in the 1930s.<ref name="derStandard">{{Cite web |title=derStandard.at |url=https://apps.derstandard.at/privacywall/2000076385176/Angriff-auf-Afrin-Vertreibung-vom-Berg-der-Kurden |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220706064125/https://apps.derstandard.at/privacywall/2000076385176/Angriff-auf-Afrin-Vertreibung-vom-Berg-der-Kurden |archive-date=2022-07-06 |access-date=2022-08-15 |website=DER STANDARD}}</ref>

== Kurdish tribes immigrating to Syria ==
French geographer Pierre Rondot provides a detailed account of the settlement areas for the native and incoming tribes of Jazira, extending his focus to the [[Taurus Mountains]] in Turkey. In the Syrian Jazira region he mentions the following Kurdish tribes in the Qamishli area and comments on their origins in Turkey and current establishment locations:<ref name="Rondot">{{cite journal|last=Rondot|first=Pierre |year=1936|title=Les Tribus Montagnardes de l'Asie Anterieure. Quelues Aspects Sociaux Des Populations Kurdes et Assyriennes |journal=Bulletin d'études orientales |volume=6 |issue=28|pages=1–50|doi=10.3406/geoca.1953.1294 |jstor=41585290 |language=fr|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/41585290|access-date=2022-08-19}}</ref>

* Tchities (Teşikan tribe): descended from the northern mountains in [[Adiyaman Province]] under the leadership of Xelaf Axa and established to the east of Qamishli
* Pinar Ali: agricultural workers living in villages west of Qamishli where they do not own land
* Dakouri (Dakoran tribe): settled farmers, descended from the Mardin area
* Kiki (Kikan): settled farmers, descended from the Mardin area
* [[Milan (tribe)|Milli]]: settled farmers, came from the area between [[Urfa]] and [[Mardin]]

Rondot reports that the establishment of all of these tribes is recent but events have evolved rapidly with the development of agricultural projects in the area.In the Derik-[[Ain Diwar]] area, Rondot mentions the Hesenan, Harunan and Alikan tribes, all of which had descended from the mountains to the north three or four generations ago.

== Political influence of Turkish Kurds in Syria and Turkey ==
The Kurdish immigration from Turkey has provided most of the Kurdish leaders in Syria, notably the Badr Khan (also spelled Bedirxan) family (known for being [[Bedir Khan Beg|the emirs of Botan]]), and Hassan Hajo Agha.<ref>Anonymous, 1948. [https://www.cia.gov/library/readingroom/docs/DOC_0000258376.pdf Report on the Kurdish minority problem 1948] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170123191447/https://www.cia.gov/library/readingroom/docs/DOC_0000258376.pdf |date=2017-01-23 }}. Central Intelligence Agency, Langley, VA.</ref>

Soon after their arrival, many Turkish Kurds in Syria established [[Xoybûn]] conference in [[Beirut]] in 1927, with its objectives to formulate a national language to help fight against the Kemalists, to organize themselves against the Turks, and to liberate Kurdistan from the Turkish yoke.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Gorgas|first=Jordi Tejel|title=Le mouvement kurde de Turquie en exil: continuités et discontinuités du nationalisme kurde sous le mandat français en Syrie et au Liban (1925–1946)|date=2007|publisher=Peter Lang|isbn=978-3-03911-209-8|pages=148|language=fr}}</ref>

== Demographics ==


=== Syrian census of 1939 ===
In 1939, [[Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon|French mandate]] authorities reported the following population numbers for the different ethnic and religious groups in al-Hasakah city centre.<ref>Algun, S., 2011. [https://dspace.library.uu.nl/handle/1874/205821 Sectarianism in the Syrian Jazira: Community, land and violence in the memories of World War I and the French mandate (1915- 1939)]. Ph.D. Dissertation. Universiteit Utrecht, the Netherlands. Pages 11–12. Accessed on 8 December 2019.</ref>
In 1939, [[Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon|French mandate]] authorities reported the following population numbers for the different ethnic and religious groups in al-Hasakah city centre:<ref>Algun, S., 2011. [https://dspace.library.uu.nl/handle/1874/205821 Sectarianism in the Syrian Jazira: Community, land and violence in the memories of World War I and the French mandate (1915– 1939)]. PhD Dissertation. Universiteit Utrecht, the Netherlands. Pages 11–12. Accessed on 8 December 2019.</ref>


{| class="wikitable sortable"
{| class="wikitable sortable"
Line 71: Line 90:
|}
|}


=== After World War II ===
=== Jazira population between 1929 and 1954 ===
The number of Kurds settled in the Jazira province during the 1920s was estimated at 20,000<ref name="The Refugee Problem">{{cite book |last=Simpson |first=John Hope |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SxR8uwEACAAJ |title=The Refugee Problem: Report of a Survey |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1939 |edition=First |location=London |page=458 |asin=B0006AOLOA |url-access=registration}}</ref> to 25,000 people.<ref name="McDowall">{{cite book |last=McDowall |first=David |title=A Modern History of the Kurds |publisher=Tauris |year=2005 |isbn=1-85043-416-6 |edition=3. revised and upd. ed., repr. |location=London [u.a.] |pages=469}}</ref> These numbers marked a huge demographic shift in Jazira's population that was estimated at 40,000 in 1929.<ref name="DeVaumas" />
Illegal immigration along the border from [[Ras al-Ayn]] to al-Malikiyya continued after WWII. Another major wave of illegal Kurdish immigrants settled down in the region along the border in major population centers such as [[Al-Darbasiyah]], [[Amuda]] and al-Malikiyya. Many of these Kurds were able to register themselves illegally in the Syrian civil registers. They were also able to obtain Syrian identity cards through a variety of means, with the help of their relatives and members of their tribes. It is thought that the land reform encouraged their immigration in an effort to benefit from socialist-style land redistribution. Official figures available in 1961 showed that in a mere seven-year period, between 1954 and 1961, the population of al-Hasakah governorate had increased from 240,000 to 305,000, an increase of 27% which could not possibly be explained merely by natural increase. The government was sufficiently worried by the apparent influx that it carried out a sample census in June 1962 which indicated the real population was probably closer to 340,000. The huge unemployment due to mechanization, harsh working conditions and political instability in Turkey are all factors that have further encouraged immigration out of Turkey.<ref>McDowall, David. Modern History of the Kurds, I. B. Tauris & Company, Limited, 2004. pp. 473-474.</ref>


Due to successive waves of Kurdish immigration from Turkey, the population of Jazira province grew significantly. The largest jumps were in 1932 and 1935 when the population increased by 42.7% and 45.8%, respectively.
=== Immigration to northwestern Syria ===
Although mostly concentrated in the northeast due to the proximity of Kurdistan, Kurds immigrated to other parts of Syria. For example, a group of Kurdish Alevis who fled the persecution of the [[Turkish army|Turkish Army]] during the [[Dersim Massacre]], settled in Mabeta in the 1930s.<ref name=" derStandard ">{{Cite web|url=https://apps.derstandard.at/privacywall/2000076385176/Angriff-auf-Afrin-Vertreibung-vom-Berg-der-Kurden|title=derStandard.at|website=DER STANDARD}}</ref>


Historical population increases in Jazira are depicted in the table below:<ref name="DeVaumas" />
== Town and village establishment in the area ==
{| class="wikitable"
An account of the number of settlements for the new immigrants and their locations in Syrian Jazira is given by the French geographer Etienne de Vaumas. These settlements were created to help the newcomers work in mechanized agricultural projects. As of 1932, in the Kamishliye (Qamishli) region, one town, 28 villages, 48 hamlets and 29 isolated farms for future villages were established. To the north of [[Ain Diwar]] (in al-Malikiyah district, almost 90 villages were erected. The number of villages was estimated by the French intelligence officer in [[Hasakah]] (regional capital) at 250 in 1929. This number jumped to 336 in 1935.<ref name=DeVaumas />
|+Population from 1929-1954

!Year
== Kurdish tribes immigrating to Syria ==
!Population
French geographer Pierre Rondot provides a precious, detailed account of the settlement areas for the native and incoming tribes of Jazira, extending his focus to the [[Taurus Mountains]] in Turkey. In the Syrian Jazira region he mentions the following Kurdish tribes in the Qamishli area and comments on their origins in Turkey and current establishment locations:<ref name="Rondot">{{cite journal|last=Rondot|first=Pierre |year=1936|title=Les Tribus Montagnardes de l'Asie Anterieure. Quelues Aspects Sociaux DES POPULATIONS KURDES ET ASSYRIENNES |journal=Bulletin d'études orientales |volume=6 |issue=28|pages=1–50|doi=10.3406/geoca.1953.1294 |jstor=41585290 |language=fr|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/41585290|access-date=2022-08-19}}</ref>
!% change

|-
* Tchities: descended from the northern mountains under the leadership of Xelaf Axa and established to the east of Qamishli
|1929
* Pinar Ali: agricultural workers living in villages west of Qamishli where they do not own land
|40,000
* Dakouri: settled farmers
| -
* Kiki: settled farmers
|-
* Milli: settled farmers
|1931

|44,153
Rondot reports that the establishment of all of these tribes is recent but events have evolved rapidly with the development of agricultural projects in the area.
| +10.4%
In the Derik-Ain Diwar area, Rondot mentions the Hesenan, Harunan and Alikan tribes, all of which had descended from the mountains to the north three or four generations ago.
|-

|1932
== Political influence of Turkish Kurds in Syria ==
|63,000
The Kurdish immigration from Turkey has provided most of the Kurdish leaders in Syria, notably the Badr Khan family, Dr. Ahmad Nazif, and Hassan Hajo Agha.<ref>Anonymous, 1948. [https://www.cia.gov/library/readingroom/docs/DOC_0000258376.pdf Report on the Kurdish minority problem 1948] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170123191447/https://www.cia.gov/library/readingroom/docs/DOC_0000258376.pdf |date=2017-01-23 }}. Central Intelligence Agency, Langley, VA.</ref>
| +42.7%
|-
|1933
|64,886
| +3.0%
|-
|1935
|94,596
| +45.8%
|-
|1937
|98,144
| -
|-
|1938
|103,514
| +5.5%
|-
|1939
|106,052
| +2.5%
|-
|1940
|126,508
| +19.3%
|-
|1941
|128,145
| +2.1%
|-
|1942
|136,107
| -
|-
|1943
|146,001
| +7.3%
|-
|1946
|151,137
| +3.5%
|-
|1950
|159,300
| +5.4%
|-
|1951
|162,145
| +1.8%
|-
|1952
|177,388
| +9.4%
|-
|1953
|232,104
| +30.8%
|-
|1954
|233,998
| +0.8%
|}


== References ==
== References ==
{{Reflist}}
{{Reflist}}


[[Category:Kurdish diaspora]]
[[Category:Kurds in Syria|Immigration]]
[[Category:Political history of Syria]]
[[Category:Political history of Syria]]
[[Category:Kurdistan]]
[[Category:Kurdistan]]
[[Category:Immigration to Syria]]

Latest revision as of 23:19, 6 April 2024

Kurdish immigration into Syria has occurred since ancient times. Today Kurds form about 10% of Syria's population, numbering around 2 million.[1] The majority of Kurds in Syria immigrated from Turkey to the French Mandate the 20th century to escape persecution.[2] Most of these Kurds live in northeast Syria, with smaller communities scattered in various places across the country.

Pre-modern Kurdish presence in Syria[edit]

Kurds have been known to live in Syria for centuries. Since the 7th century, Kurds were often influential in the area of religion.[3] They were also known as warriors, and the Zengid dynasty had a strong contingent of Kurds in their military.[3] The Mirdasid prince of Aleppo stationed Kurds in the fortress of castle Krak de Chevalier to protect the trade routes between Homs and Hama from 1029 to 1038.[3] In Arabic, the castle was known as Ḥoṣn al-Akrād (حصن الأكراد) meaning "fort of the Kurds."[4]

Saladin, the Kurdish founder of the Ayyubid dynasty, established himself in Damascus, where he had lived during his youth. His brother Turan-Shah governed Syria.[5]

20th century[edit]

French mandate era (1920–1946)[edit]

During the interwar period, the Turkish campaign to assimilate its Kurdish population was at its peak. This caused large groups of Kurds to leave Turkey.[2] These first waves of Kurds arrived with the laying of the Aleppo-Baghdad section of the Berlin-Baghdad railway. According to Kurdish studies expert Jordi Tejel, Kurdish political parties at the time were not interested in challenging Syrian borders and preferred to focus on their region of origin in Turkish Kurdistan.[6]

Maurice Abadie, a French general and overseer of the French occupation of Syria, noticed that Kurds were beginning to migrate west of the Euphrates, particularly to northern Syria. The Kurds who settled there lived alongside Turks, Turkmen, Christians and Arabs, and adopted several customs from their new neighbours.[7]

In the 1920s, the military situation in southeastern Turkey deteriorated.[7] Between February and March 1925, the Kurdish cleric Sheikh Said led a rebellion in the northern parts of Diyarbakır Province and conquered large swaths of southeastern Turkey, besieging the city of Diyarbakır. The rebellion forced tens of thousands of Kurds to flee their homes in the mountains of Turkey and cross into Syria.[8] This rebellion was one of the first in a long series of rebellions and conflicts between the Kurdish population and Kemalist authorities.[9]

The French Mandate authorities encouraged this Kurdish immigration[10] and granted them considerable rights, including Syrian citizenship, in its bigger minority autonomy campaign as part of a divide and rule strategy. This favorable policy towards Kurdish immigration into Syria was part of the a plan executed by French officer Pierre Terrier (and became known as the Terrier Plan) aiming at creating majority/minority rifts in Syria. The Terrier Plan shaped what is known as the Kurdish policy by mandatory authorities. This plan also used the new immigrants in its "sedentarization" (or pacification) project aiming at reclaiming large swathes of land to make the mandate financially more profitable for the French.

In his zeal to increase the population of the area, Terrier has even sometimes contradicted the directives of the French High Commissariat in Beirut.[11] Some of the new arrivals worked with the French against the local population. A prime example is the Kurdish tribal chief Hadjo Agha of the influential Havergan tribe who immigrated from Turkey together with more than 600 families, including arms and sheep, and settled in al-Qahtaniyah.[8] In different parts of Syria, the French recruited heavily from the Kurds and other minority groups such as Alawite and Druze, for its local armed forces.[12]

The French authorities themselves generally organized the settlement of the refugees. One of the most important of these plans was carried out in Upper Jazira in northeastern Syria where the French built new towns and villages such as Qamishli (in 1926) and al-Malikiyah (then called Dijlah or Tigre in French) with the intention of housing the Turkish and Iraqi refugees considered to be "friendly" (i.e. Christians and Kurds). This has further encouraged the non-Turkish minorities that were under Turkish pressure to leave their ancestral homes and property, they could find refuge and rebuild their lives in relative safety in neighboring Syria.[13] Consequently, the border areas in al-Hasakah Governorate between Qamishli and al-Malikiyah started to have a Kurdish majority, while Arabs remained the majority in river plains and elsewhere.

The French geographer Robert Montagne summarized the situation in 1932 as follows:[14]

We are seeing an increase in village establishment that are either constructed by the Kurds descending from the Anatolian mountains (north of the border) to cultivate or as a sign of increasing settlement of Arab groups with the help of their Armenian and Yezidi farmers.

After World War II[edit]

Illegal immigration along the border from Ras al-Ayn to al-Malikiyya continued after WWII. Another major wave of illegal Kurdish immigrants settled down in the region along the border in major population centers such as Al-Darbasiyah, Amuda and al-Malikiyya. Many of these Kurds were able to register themselves illegally in the Syrian civil registers. They were also able to obtain Syrian identity cards through a variety of means, with the help of their relatives and members of their tribes. It is thought that the land reform encouraged their immigration in an effort to benefit from socialist-style land redistribution. Official figures available in 1961 showed that in a mere seven-year period, between 1954 and 1961, the population of al-Hasakah governorate had increased from 240,000 to 305,000, an increase of 27% which could not possibly be explained merely by natural increase. The government was sufficiently worried by the apparent influx that it carried out a sample census in June 1962 which indicated the real population was probably closer to 340,000. The huge unemployment due to mechanization, harsh working conditions and political instability in Turkey are all factors that have further encouraged immigration out of Turkey.[15]

Kurdish towns and villages in Syria[edit]

The French official reports show the existence of at most 45 Kurdish villages in Jazira prior to 1927. A new wave of refugees arrived in 1929.[16] The mandatory authorities continued to encourage Kurdish immigration into Syria, and by 1939, the villages numbered between 700 and 800.[16] These continuous waves swelled the number of Kurds in the area, and French geographers Fevret and Gibert[8] estimated that in 1953 out of the total 146,000 inhabitants of Jazira, agriculturalist Kurds made up 60,000 (41%), semi-sedentary and nomad Arabs 50,000 (34%), and a quarter of the population were Christians.[8]

An account of the number of settlements for the new immigrants and their locations in Syrian Jazira is given by the French geographer Etienne de Vaumas. These settlements were created to help the newcomers work in mechanized agricultural projects. As of 1932, in the Kamishliye (Qamishli) region, one town, 28 villages, 48 hamlets and 29 isolated farms for future villages were established. To the north of Ain Diwar (in al-Malikiyah district, almost 90 villages were erected. The number of villages was estimated by the French intelligence officer in Hasakah (regional capital) at 250 in 1929. This number jumped to 336 in 1935.[14]

A group of Kurdish Alevis who fled the persecution of the Turkish army during the Dersim massacre, settled in Mabeta in the 1930s.[17]

Kurdish tribes immigrating to Syria[edit]

French geographer Pierre Rondot provides a detailed account of the settlement areas for the native and incoming tribes of Jazira, extending his focus to the Taurus Mountains in Turkey. In the Syrian Jazira region he mentions the following Kurdish tribes in the Qamishli area and comments on their origins in Turkey and current establishment locations:[18]

  • Tchities (Teşikan tribe): descended from the northern mountains in Adiyaman Province under the leadership of Xelaf Axa and established to the east of Qamishli
  • Pinar Ali: agricultural workers living in villages west of Qamishli where they do not own land
  • Dakouri (Dakoran tribe): settled farmers, descended from the Mardin area
  • Kiki (Kikan): settled farmers, descended from the Mardin area
  • Milli: settled farmers, came from the area between Urfa and Mardin

Rondot reports that the establishment of all of these tribes is recent but events have evolved rapidly with the development of agricultural projects in the area.In the Derik-Ain Diwar area, Rondot mentions the Hesenan, Harunan and Alikan tribes, all of which had descended from the mountains to the north three or four generations ago.

Political influence of Turkish Kurds in Syria and Turkey[edit]

The Kurdish immigration from Turkey has provided most of the Kurdish leaders in Syria, notably the Badr Khan (also spelled Bedirxan) family (known for being the emirs of Botan), and Hassan Hajo Agha.[19]

Soon after their arrival, many Turkish Kurds in Syria established Xoybûn conference in Beirut in 1927, with its objectives to formulate a national language to help fight against the Kemalists, to organize themselves against the Turks, and to liberate Kurdistan from the Turkish yoke.[20]

Demographics[edit]

Syrian census of 1939[edit]

In 1939, French mandate authorities reported the following population numbers for the different ethnic and religious groups in al-Hasakah city centre:[21]

Syrian census of 1939
District Arab Kurd Christian Armenian Yezidi Assyrian
Hasakah city centre 7,133 360 5,700 500
Tell Tamer 8,767
Ras al-Ayn 2,283 1,025 2,263
Shaddadi 2,610 6
Tell Brak 4,509 905 200
Qamishli city centre 7,990 5,892 14,140 3,500 720
Amuda 11,260 1,500 720
Al-Darbasiyah 3,011 7,899 2,382 425
Chagar Bazar 380 3,810 3
Ain Diwar 3,608 900
Derik (later renamed Al-Malikiyah) 44 1,685 1,204
Mustafiyya 344 959 50
Derouna Agha 570 5,097 27
Tel Koger (later renamed Al-Yaarubiyah) 165

Jazira population between 1929 and 1954[edit]

The number of Kurds settled in the Jazira province during the 1920s was estimated at 20,000[22] to 25,000 people.[23] These numbers marked a huge demographic shift in Jazira's population that was estimated at 40,000 in 1929.[14]

Due to successive waves of Kurdish immigration from Turkey, the population of Jazira province grew significantly. The largest jumps were in 1932 and 1935 when the population increased by 42.7% and 45.8%, respectively.

Historical population increases in Jazira are depicted in the table below:[14]

Population from 1929-1954
Year Population % change
1929 40,000 -
1931 44,153 +10.4%
1932 63,000 +42.7%
1933 64,886 +3.0%
1935 94,596 +45.8%
1937 98,144 -
1938 103,514 +5.5%
1939 106,052 +2.5%
1940 126,508 +19.3%
1941 128,145 +2.1%
1942 136,107 -
1943 146,001 +7.3%
1946 151,137 +3.5%
1950 159,300 +5.4%
1951 162,145 +1.8%
1952 177,388 +9.4%
1953 232,104 +30.8%
1954 233,998 +0.8%

References[edit]

  1. ^ "Who are Syria's minority groups?". SBS News. Retrieved 2024-03-28.
  2. ^ a b Storm, Lise (2005). "Ethnonational Minorities in the Middle East Berbers, Kurds, and Palestinians". A Companion to the History of the Middle East. Utrecht: Wiley-Blackwell. p. 475. ISBN 1-4051-0681-6.
  3. ^ a b c Eddé, Anne-Marie (1997-01-01). Kurdes et Turcs dans l'armée ayyoubide de Syrie du Nord. Brill. p. 226. ISBN 978-90-04-47447-5.
  4. ^ Ring, Trudy; Watson, Noelle; Schellinger, Paul (2014-03-05). Middle East and Africa: International Dictionary of Historic Places. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-25986-1.
  5. ^ "Sultan Saladin Ayubi – ein Kurde, der Geschichte machte | NAVEND – Zentrum für Kurdische Studien e.V." www.navend.de. Retrieved 2022-10-15.
  6. ^ Tejel, Jordi (2020). "Borders, Boundaries, and the State. Mobility & Politics". The Complex and Dynamic Relationship of Syria's Kurds with Syrian Borders: Continuities and Changes. Cham: Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 243–267. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-44877-6_11. ISBN 978-3-030-44876-9. S2CID 226595950.
  7. ^ a b Dawn Chatty (2010). Displacement and Dispossession in the Modern Middle East. Cambridge University Press. pp. 230–232. ISBN 978-1-139-48693-4.
  8. ^ a b c d Fevret, Maurice; Gibert, André (1953). "La Djezireh syrienne et son réveil économique". Revue de géographie de Lyon (in French). 28 (28): 1–15. doi:10.3406/geoca.1953.1294. Retrieved 2012-03-29.
  9. ^ Arshak Safrastian, Kurds and Kurdistan, (London: Harvill Press, 1948), p. 169.
  10. ^ Kreyenbroek, Philip G.; Sperl, Stefan (1992). The Kurds: A Contemporary Overview. London: Routledge. pp. 147. ISBN 0-415-07265-4.
  11. ^ Tejel Gorgas, Jordi (2007). "The Terrier Plan and the emergence of a Kurdish policy under the French Mandate in Syria, 1926–1936". The International Journal of Kurdish Studies. 21 (1 & 2): 93–108. Retrieved 16 August 2022.
  12. ^ Yildiz, Kerim (2005). The Kurds in Syria : the forgotten people (1. publ. ed.). London [etc.]: Pluto Press, in association with Kurdish Human Rights Project. p. 25. ISBN 0745324991.
  13. ^ Tachjian Vahé, The expulsion of non-Turkish ethnic and religious groups from Turkey to Syria during the 1920s and early 1930s, Online Encyclopedia of Mass Violence, [online], published on: 5 March 2009, accessed 09/12/2019, ISSN 1961-9898
  14. ^ a b c d De Vaumas Étienne. Population actuelle de la Djézireh. In: Annales de Géographie, t. 65, n°347, 1956. pp. 72–74; doi : https://doi.org/10.3406/geo.1956.14375.
  15. ^ McDowall, David. Modern History of the Kurds, I. B. Tauris & Company, Limited, 2004. pp. 473–474.
  16. ^ a b Tejel, Jordi (2009). Syria's Kurds: History, Politics and Society. London: Routledge. p. 144. ISBN 978-0-203-89211-4.
  17. ^ "derStandard.at". DER STANDARD. Archived from the original on 2022-07-06. Retrieved 2022-08-15.
  18. ^ Rondot, Pierre (1936). "Les Tribus Montagnardes de l'Asie Anterieure. Quelues Aspects Sociaux Des Populations Kurdes et Assyriennes". Bulletin d'études orientales (in French). 6 (28): 1–50. doi:10.3406/geoca.1953.1294. JSTOR 41585290. Retrieved 2022-08-19.
  19. ^ Anonymous, 1948. Report on the Kurdish minority problem 1948 Archived 2017-01-23 at the Wayback Machine. Central Intelligence Agency, Langley, VA.
  20. ^ Gorgas, Jordi Tejel (2007). Le mouvement kurde de Turquie en exil: continuités et discontinuités du nationalisme kurde sous le mandat français en Syrie et au Liban (1925–1946) (in French). Peter Lang. p. 148. ISBN 978-3-03911-209-8.
  21. ^ Algun, S., 2011. Sectarianism in the Syrian Jazira: Community, land and violence in the memories of World War I and the French mandate (1915– 1939). PhD Dissertation. Universiteit Utrecht, the Netherlands. Pages 11–12. Accessed on 8 December 2019.
  22. ^ Simpson, John Hope (1939). The Refugee Problem: Report of a Survey (First ed.). London: Oxford University Press. p. 458. ASIN B0006AOLOA.
  23. ^ McDowall, David (2005). A Modern History of the Kurds (3. revised and upd. ed., repr. ed.). London [u.a.]: Tauris. p. 469. ISBN 1-85043-416-6.