History of archaeology in the Philippines

The history of archaeology in the Philippines, officially known as the Republic of the Philippines, has been affected by many significant figures and the multiple chronologies associated with the type of artifacts and research conducted over the years.

The Philippines have had a long legacy of Spanish colonization of over 300 years. To begin to understand the archaeology of the Philippines, colonization by the Spanish must be factored in and understood. As Carl Guthe puts, as he excavated the Philippines during the 1920s, "The Filipinos have been under Christian influence for such a long period that all recollection of pre-Spanish inhumations has passed." Thus, linking the past and present through Philippine archaeology can be an issue when it comes to understanding artifacts from before Spanish colonization.

In addition to Spanish Colonization, the Philippines have also suffered in more recent history from American colonization that still persists to this day. On December 10, 1898, Spain surrendered the Philippines to the United States through the Treaty of Paris. This began a long period of American colonization, which played a huge role in Philippine archaeology as it enabled American anthropologists to explore vast archaeological sites with profound evidence of human occupation and evolution. Later, archaeologists like H. Otley Beyer were able to put the Philippines in the archaeological record through events such as the 1904 St. Louis World's Fair, which initiated the development of archaeology in the Philippines.

Significant figures in Philippine archaeology

H. Otley Beyer

H. Otley Beyer was a cultural anthropologist and archaeologist who founded Philippine archaeology and became head of anthropology at the University of the Philippines. His Waves of Migration Theory relied on phenotypic and linguistic variability. He explained how he believed that people migrated into the Philippines in "waves," with each wave getting lighter in skin color and more culturally sophisticated. Beyer's theory showed the first wave as the negritos (25,000–30,000 YBP), the second wave as the Indonesians (5,000–6,000 YBP), and the third wave as the Malayas (2,500 YBP).

Beyer conducted archaeological surveys in Luzon, Palawan, and the Visayan Islands and suggested that terraces were constructed as early as 2000 years ago.

Robert Fox

Robert Bradford Fox was an anthropologist and leading historian of the pre-Hispanic Philippines. He led excavations in 1958 at Calatagan, Batangas, where he found 505 graves in two sites. Fox also became the head of the Anthropology Division at the National Museum of the Philippines, where he led a research project in Palawan from 1962 to 1966. Fox later delivered the only Pleistocene human fossils found in the Philippines through his excavations at the Tabon Cave complex.

Wilhelm G. Solheim II

Wilhelm Solheim conducted the first archaeological excavations in the Philippines after World War II. His fieldwork was mostly conducted in mainland and island Southeast Asia, as well as the Pacific Islands. Solheim was a professor of Anthropology at the University of Hawaii from 1967 to 1991.

Stephen Acabado

Stephen Acabado is an anthropology professor at the University of California, Los Angeles. Acabado researches the relationships among Southeast Asian agricultural complexes, landscapes, and society. He has led research projects focusing on Ifugao, such as his Ifugao Archaeological Project.

Traditional comparative chronologies

The Three-Age System

The Three-Age System is a common periodization system that divides history into the Stone Age, the Bronze Age, and the Iron Age. These periods have been used throughout European archaeology to label artifacts into recognizable chronology. Despite this periodization being common in archaeology elsewhere, the Philippines has adopted various comparative chronologies that more accurately and efficiently categorize artifacts throughout history.

Comparative chronologies according to Victor Paz

Pre-archaeology: 19th century

According to Victor Paz, the Pre-Archaeology period is the longest among the five identified periods. As the name suggests, it is characterized as a time before archaeology as a discipline evolved. During this period, there was no evidence that antique material culture had any value. The exact dates of the pre-archaeology period are still debated, due to the discovery of human burial sites containing associated objects that demonstrate value.

Accidental Archaeology: 19th century to early 1920s

The Accidental Archaeology period is characterized by the beginnings of an antiquarian appreciation of the past regarding material goods. In this period, archaeology is still not quite a science, but rather served a purpose for other research pursuits that belonged in ethnographic and natural sciences. French naturalist Alfred Marche is the most prominent figure during this time and usually credited with being the first to conduct archaeological explorations and collect Philippine cultural goods. Marche collected not just for an antiquarian appreciation, but for a vested interest in exoticism. In 1881, he excavated human remains in the open sites in Marinduque and Catanduanes. He also found a number of other artifacts such as Chinese pottery, gold, wooden coffins, and burial urns. These artifacts were collected for museums in France.

Other examples belonging to this period are the few educated elite Filipinos such as Pardo de Tavera and the Calderon family, who started private collections in Manila.

Committed Archaeology: 1920s to mid 1960s

During the Committed Archaeology period, the National Museum of the Philippines made more serious attempts at directed archaeological research, uncovering information about settlement patterns, burial practices, and artifact assemblage. The Three-Age System was adopted during this period as the primary way to categorize archaeological findings, following an evolutionary approach that linked artifacts to the progression of human culture from "savagery" to "civilization."

Directed Archaeology: mid-1960s to late 1990s

The Directed Archaeology period saw the development of contemporary worldwide archaeological ethics standards, which disengaged archaeological research from its antiquarian origins, especially in regards to looting. There was also an increase in state support of archaeology practices and research projects, enabled by the strengthening of the National Museum of the Philippines via protective laws and an increase in resources. Research projects were led by private individuals and academic institutions in collaboration with the museum and resulted in the global interest of the Philippines.

Reflective Archaeology: late 1990s to present

The current period of archaeology is the Reflective Period, which articulates the ethics of archaeology, emphasizing respect for "private property" and an increase in state and private institutional support of archaeological research. Reflective Archaeology uses a multidisciplinary approach to answer research questions regarding origin, migration, trade patterns, and domestication practices of the Philippines. Archaeology today focuses on rewriting the colonial narratives that dominate the discipline, encouraging community involvement and the preservation of Filipino heritage.

Comparative chronologies according to F. Landa Jocano

According to F. Landa Jocano, the comparative chronologies of history of the archaeology of the Philippines consisted of the Mythic Phase, Formative Phase, Incipient Phase, Emergent Phase, and Baranganic Phase (Jocano, 2001).

Mythic Phase

The Mythic Phase is from the beginning of time and focuses on the emphasis of myths as a source of creative information from previous generations including symbols that corresponds to religious beliefs, social practices, and political power. In the Philippines, this emphasis focused on two creation myths. The first focuses on the Yliguynes and their two gods, Captan and Maguayen. The second focuses on the Tinguines, who believed that in the beginning that there was only the sea and the sky. Jocano emphasizes how these myths reflect prehistoric Filipino culture as well as imagination and ancient thinking regarding human origin. Jocano shows the importance of acknowledging myths to further understand the "emergence and development of our prehistory culture" (Jocano, 2001, p. 102).

Formative Phase

The Formative Phase symbolizes cultural development from ca. 50,000 to 500 BC. Within this phase, the emergence of new archaeological artifacts such as the first human fossils in the Tabon Cave emphasizes human migration to the Philippines. Artifacts found from this phase support the idea that there was a developing culture in the region, which was capable of adapting to their environment. These types of artifacts showed that there were stone-tool, ceramic, and other economic industries that enabled tasks such as foraging, gathering, hunting, fishing, and horticulture. Jocano shows the true importance of this phase as it exemplified the unfolding of life and culture through the development of the stone tool and ceramic industries.

Incipient Phase

The Incipient Phase further emphasizes cultural development after the Formative Phase from ca. 500 BC to the first millennium AD. Throughout this phase, radical advancements within Filipino culture began to develop, with the emergence of effective agriculture and manufacturing to develop large societies. The appearance of metals allowed for better tools and nicer cultural objects such as beads, which allowed for stratification of class within society. Jocano further emphasizes the advancements made in the ceramic industry, which led to progress in trade and the eventual use of jar burials in the Philippines. The Incipient Phase was filled with the development of technology that allowed for Filipinos to adapt to their environment effectively, which further enhanced their culture and survival.

Emergent Phase

The Emergent Phase also emphasizes cultural development from the 1st century AD to the 14th century. In this phase, social and economic improvement appeared with the domestication of plants and animals, which allowed for expanded trade, communities, and population growth. Jocano explains how community growth, writing, political decentralization, and foreign trade allowed for social organization and better-developed culture during the prehistoric Philippines.

Baranganic Phase

The Baranganic Phase highlights the last period of cultural development from around the 14th century to the 16th century. The Barangay consisted of "the smallest sociopolitical unit of pre-colonial Philippine society," and exemplified the development of social stratification and complex economy (Jocano, 2001, p. 154). Within this period, accounts from Spanish Friars provided vast information of written records that allow people like Jocano to argue that this ancient Filipino society was incredibly complex, despite foreign powers, and greatly influenced how civilization is maintained today in the Philippines.

Comparative chronologies according to Laure Lee Junker

Another comparative chronology of archaeology in the Philippines is the Bais/Tanjay Regional Chronology of Laure Lee Junker. Junker dissects her chronology into the following seven phases: the Edjek Phase, the Solamillo Phase, the Aguilar Phase, the Santiago Phase, the Osmena Phase, the Spanish Phase, and the Historic Phase.

The Edjek Phase

The Edjek Phase was ca. 2000–1500 B.C. This period in traditional chronology would be represented as the Neolithic Age.

The Edjek Phase, a captivating epoch within the Bais/Tanjay Regional Chronology meticulously curated by Laure Lee Junker, stands as a beacon in the archaeological exploration of the Philippines, specifically representing the Neolithic Age. Spanning the timeline from approximately 2000 to 1500 B.C., the Edjek Phase marks a crucial turning point in the prehistoric narrative of the region.

During this period, nomadic groups began to settle into more permanent communities, initiating the shift from a hunter-gatherer lifestyle to a sedentary, agriculture-based society. The Edjek people, living in the Bais/Tanjay region, undertook the pioneering task of domesticating plants and animals, laying the foundation for sustained agricultural practices that would define subsequent phases.

The emergence of agriculture during the Edjek Phase had a profound impact on societal structures. With the cultivation of crops such as rice, tubers, and legumes, communities could support larger populations. Settlements became more permanent, fostering the development of social hierarchies and communal structures. The transition to agriculture also brought about changes in material culture, with the advent of rudimentary pottery being a hallmark of this period.

Archaeological evidence from Edjek Phase sites reveals the innovative spirit of these early agrarian communities. Simple yet functional pottery, primarily used for storage and food preparation, showcases the technological advancements in ceramic production. Stone tools, characteristic of the Neolithic Age, further emphasize the adaptability and resourcefulness of the Edjek people.

The communal aspect of Edjek society is evident in the layout of settlements, which often featured communal spaces for activities, ceremonies, and gatherings. Ritual practices, tied to the agricultural calendar and the cyclical nature of life, played a central role in shaping the cultural identity of the Edjek people.

Interactions with neighboring communities, while limited compared to later phases, laid the groundwork for the exchange of goods and ideas. The Edjek Phase, as a bridge between nomadic lifestyles and settled agricultural communities, paved the way for the cultural complexities that would unfold in subsequent phases like the Solamillo, Yocor, Santiago, and Osmena.

In the comprehensive tapestry of Laure Lee Junker's chronology, the Edjek Phase serves as a cornerstone in the story of the Philippines' prehistoric heritage. It represents a time of transition, innovation, and the dawn of a new era as ancient communities took the first steps towards a more organized and agrarian way of life. The artifacts and remnants of the Edjek Phase continue to captivate archaeologists, offering invaluable insights into the early chapters of human civilization in the region.

The Solamillo Phase

The Solamillo Phase was ca. A.D. 0–500. This period in traditional chronology would be represented as the Iron Age, or Metal Age according to the long history model.

The Solamillo Phase, spanning from approximately A.D. 0 to 500, marked a pivotal era in human history, commonly designated as the Iron Age or Metal Age in traditional chronology. As elucidated by the insightful anthropologist Laure Lee Junker, this period unfolded with a tapestry of dynamic cultural, technological, and societal transformations that captivated the imagination of generations to come.

The Solamillo people, named after the enigmatic Solamillo River that meandered through their heartland, were at the forefront of harnessing the power of metallurgy. This epoch was characterized by a profound shift from reliance on stone tools to the mastery of metalworking, a revolutionary leap that altered the trajectory of human civilization. The echoes of clanging anvils and the mesmerizing dance of flames in Solamillo forges echoed across the landscape, signaling the birth of a new era.

In the crucible of innovation, the Solamillo people developed sophisticated techniques for extracting and manipulating metals, primarily iron. This technological leap not only transformed the landscape of craftsmanship but also unleashed a cascade of changes in agriculture, warfare, and trade. Iron tools fueled unprecedented advancements in agriculture, leading to surpluses that sustained burgeoning populations and fostered the growth of intricate social structures.

The Solamillo Phase witnessed the rise of fortified settlements and sprawling urban centers, emblematic of the newfound stability and prosperity facilitated by iron tools. The Solamillo people's ingenuity extended to metallurgical arts, as evidenced by exquisite artifacts, intricate jewelry, and ceremonial weaponry that reflected their cultural sophistication.

Junker's research shed light on the complex social dynamics of the Solamillo society. As the metalworking elite emerged, a class structure took shape, accompanied by intricate systems of governance and religious practices. Temples adorned with elaborate metal ornaments became the focal points of spiritual life, while chieftains and leaders adorned themselves with opulent metal regalia that symbolized their authority.

The Solamillo people were not confined by geographical boundaries; their influence radiated across trade routes that crisscrossed the continent. The exchange of goods, ideas, and technology fostered a vibrant network of interconnected societies. The Solamillo Phase thus became a nexus of cultural exchange, as diverse communities embraced and adapted the innovations pioneered by the metalworking artisans of Solamillo.

However, this era was not without its challenges. The demand for resources to fuel the burgeoning metal industry led to territorial conflicts, shaping the landscape of warfare in the Solamillo world. The clash of iron weaponry on battlefields and the construction of formidable fortifications underscored the complex interplay between technological progress and the perennial struggle for power.

As the Solamillo Phase approached its zenith, a confluence of factors, including environmental changes and socio-political upheavals, set the stage for the next chapter in human history. The legacy of the Solamillo people persisted in the annals of time, leaving an indelible mark on the pages of antiquity and serving as a testament to the transformative power of innovation during this remarkable era.

The Aguilar Phase

The Aguilar Phase was ca. A.D. 500–1000. The Aguilar Phase, spanning the years A.D. 500–1000, emerges as a captivating and transformative epoch within the Bais/Tanjay Regional Chronology meticulously curated by Laure Lee Junker. This period, situated between the Solamillo and Santiago Phases, marks a pivotal era in the Philippines, characterized by dynamic changes in technology, social structures, and cultural expressions.

As the Aguilar Phase unfolded, the Bais/Tanjay region witnessed a continuation of the trends set in motion during the Solamillo Phase. The mastery of ironworking techniques, which defined the preceding era, continued to play a central role in shaping daily life. Communities harnessed the power of metal tools for agriculture, contributing to increased productivity and economic growth.

One of the defining features of the Aguilar Phase was the further development of complex societal structures. Communities grew in size and complexity, giving rise to more organized forms of governance and social hierarchies. Leaders emerged, not only based on economic prowess but also on their ability to navigate the intricate web of interpersonal relationships, trade networks, and religious practices that defined Aguilar society.

Trade flourished during this period, with the Aguilar people actively engaging in regional and interregional exchanges. The Bais/Tanjay region became a nexus of economic activity, with goods and ideas flowing between communities. This interconnectivity facilitated the diffusion of cultural practices, technological innovations, and artistic expressions, contributing to the dynamic diversity of the region.

The Aguilar Phase also witnessed further advancements in artistic and cultural expressions. Pottery, already a refined craft during the Solamillo Phase, continued to evolve, displaying intricate designs and a heightened aesthetic sensibility. The creation of distinctive artifacts and symbolic objects reflected the growing complexity of religious and ceremonial practices, underscoring the spiritual dimensions that permeated Aguilar society.

The Santiago Phase

The Santiago Phase was ca. A.D. 1100–1400. The Santiago Phase, spanning the years A.D. 1100–1400, unfolds as a riveting and transformative period within the Bais/Tanjay Regional Chronology, meticulously curated by Laure Lee Junker. This era, nestled between the Aguilar and Osmena Phases, marks a crucial juncture in the historical narrative of the Philippines, characterized by complex cultural dynamics, technological innovations, and socio-political developments.

As the Santiago Phase dawned, the Bais/Tanjay region experienced a continuation of trends set in motion by its predecessors. Building upon the foundations laid during the Aguilar Phase, Santiago witnessed the maturation and diversification of social structures, economic activities, and cultural expressions. The communities within this phase evolved into more organized societies, characterized by intricate systems of governance and heightened social stratification.

One of the hallmark features of the Santiago Phase was the flourishing of trade networks. The Bais/Tanjay region became a vibrant hub of economic activity, actively engaging in both regional and interregional exchanges. This period saw an increased flow of goods, ideas, and cultural practices, fostering a dynamic and interconnected landscape. The Santiago people, adept seafarers, expanded their reach across the archipelago, contributing to the emergence of maritime trade routes that connected distant communities.

The Osmena Phase

The Osmena Phase was ca. A.D. 1400–1600. The Osmena Phase, spanning the years A.D. 1400–1600, emerges as a captivating and dynamic era within the Bais/Tanjay Regional Chronology, meticulously assembled by Laure Lee Junker. Situated between the Santiago and Spanish Phases, the Osmena Phase represents a pivotal juncture in the historical trajectory of the Philippines, marked by intricate social structures, technological advancements, and cultural complexities.

During the Osmena Phase, the Bais/Tanjay region witnessed a further refinement and elaboration of societal structures established in preceding phases. Communities continued to evolve, demonstrating a heightened organizational complexity and social stratification. The Osmena people engaged in sophisticated trade networks, fostering economic prosperity and intercultural exchanges that enriched the fabric of daily life. These developments laid the groundwork for the resilience and adaptability of the region's inhabitants.

Technological innovation continued to shape the material culture of the Osmena Phase. Metalworking skills reached new heights, leading to the creation of intricate tools, ornamental artifacts, and weaponry. The mastery of metal craftsmanship not only elevated the efficiency of daily activities but also contributed to the development of a distinct Osmena aesthetic. Artistic expressions flourished, evident in the refinement of pottery techniques, yielding vessels adorned with intricate designs that mirrored the evolving cultural identity of the Osmena people.

The Osmena Phase was also marked by significant architectural achievements. Communities erected grand structures and fortified settlements, showcasing an increased awareness of strategic planning and communal defense. The layout of these settlements reflected a deliberate organization, with ceremonial centers, residential areas, and communal spaces contributing to a multifaceted urban environment. This architectural prowess emphasized the societal advancements and communal cohesion characteristic of the Osmena Phase.

The Spanish Phase

The Spanish Phase was ca. A.D. 1600–1900.

The Spanish Phase, spanning the extensive period from A.D. 1600 to 1900, emerges as a consequential epoch within the Bais/Tanjay Regional Chronology, meticulously delineated by Laure Lee Junker. Marking the arrival of Spanish colonial influence in the Philippines, this era signifies a profound transformation in the socio-cultural, political, and economic landscape of the archipelago.

With the advent of the Spanish Phase, the Bais/Tanjay region became a focal point of European exploration and colonization. Spanish missionaries, soldiers, and administrators sought to assert control over the indigenous populations, initiating a period of cultural assimilation and change. The imposition of Spanish governance structures, Christianity, and European trade practices brought about a seismic shift in the traditional ways of life, laying the foundation for a new era in the Philippines.

The Spanish Phase saw the construction of colonial settlements, churches, and fortifications, leaving an indelible architectural imprint on the landscape. These structures served not only as symbols of Spanish authority but also as centers for religious conversion and administration. The integration of indigenous elements into these constructions reflected the complex interplay between Spanish colonial forces and local cultures.

The introduction of European crops, animals, and technologies during the Spanish Phase had a profound impact on agriculture and daily life. The cultivation of crops such as sugarcane and the introduction of new farming techniques altered the economic landscape, creating dependencies on European markets. The encomienda system, which granted Spanish colonizers control over indigenous labor, further reshaped social structures and contributed to the exploitation of local resources.

The Historic Phase

The Historic Phase was from ca. A.D. 1600 to the present.

The Historic Phase, spanning from approximately A.D. 1600 to the present, marks the ongoing narrative of the Philippines within the Bais/Tanjay Regional Chronology curated by Laure Lee Junker. This era encapsulates the multifaceted story of the archipelago as it navigates the complexities of colonial encounters, cultural exchange, and the myriad forces that have shaped its modern identity.

In the wake of the Spanish Phase, the Historic Phase unfolded as a continuum of historical dynamics, with the Philippines becoming a focal point of global trade, geopolitics, and cultural interactions. The archipelago experienced waves of colonial influence from various powers, including the Dutch, British, and Americans. Each encounter left an indelible mark on the cultural landscape, contributing to the diverse and resilient tapestry of the Philippines.

The Historic Phase witnessed the struggle for independence as the Philippines sought to break free from colonial rule. The Katipunan, led by figures like Andres Bonifacio, spearheaded the revolution against Spanish colonization, culminating in the declaration of Philippine independence on June 12, 1898. However, the shift from Spanish to American rule marked a new chapter in the historic narrative, bringing about a complex interplay of resistance, collaboration, and the search for national identity.

The 20th century saw the Philippines emerging as a sovereign nation, navigating the challenges of nation-building, economic development, and political stability. The impact of World War II, Japanese occupation, and the subsequent reconstruction period shaped the Philippines' trajectory into the mid-20th century. The latter half of the century witnessed the country's transition to a democratic government, economic growth, and engagement with global affairs.

The Historic Phase is an ongoing saga, with the Philippines adapting to the complexities of the contemporary world. Rapid urbanization, technological advancements, and the globalization of culture have characterized the recent decades. As the nation continues to grapple with modern challenges and opportunities, the Historic Phase serves as a foundation for understanding the resilience, adaptability, and enduring spirit of the Filipino people.

The artifacts, structures, and historical records from the Historic Phase provide a tangible link to the ever-evolving narrative of the Philippines. From colonial legacies to the complexities of post-independence development, the Historic Phase encapsulates the rich and multifaceted history that has shaped the identity of the Philippines into the present day.

Current archaeology

Much more research is needed to understand the latest period of Philippine archaeology. Current research focuses on rewriting colonial narratives and conserving Filipino heritage.

The National Museum of the Philippines

The mission of the National Museum of the Philippines is "to acquire, document, preserve, exhibit, and foster scholarly study and appreciation of works of art, specimens, and cultural and historical artifacts." The museum divisions include Anthropology, Archaeology, Cultural Properties, and Museum Education. The Archaeology division conducts research about the prehistory of the Philippines. The museum encourages community involvement by hosting events (music, art, science, workshops), teaching Filipino history by showcasing exhibits, and increasing awareness via newsletters and social media.

The Ifugao Archaeological Project

Stephen Acabado's Ifugao Archaeological Project is an example of a community archaeology project, which works with Ifugao communities to address archaeological issues regarding landscape and community formation. This project encourages community involvement to actively conserve heritage, working to date the Ifugao Rice Terraces and resolve colonial discourses regarding antiquity. Acabado uses archaeology to reveal factual evidence of originsa and colonial resistance to rewrite dominant narratives regarding Filipino origin, which are still currently based on Beyer's Waves of Migration theory.